When creating a project for their home, the owners want to have a cozy and comfortable room. They think through the interior decoration of each room and plan the arrangement of furniture. But the most important thing in construction quality home its finishing, which provides the building with waterproofing and thermal insulation of the walls, is considered to be the necessary barrier between the warm room and the cold air outside. The house has external and internal walls - which ones are better to insulate?
By covering the walls of a house from the inside, you significantly lose living space, and cold and moisture continue to affect the outside of the building. If you insulate and sheathe the outer walls, the living space will not decrease in volume, there will be no additional load on the foundation, but the brickwork will be reliably protected from moisture, temperature differences, fungi and bacteria. According to statistics, 40% of heat loss in houses occurs through walls. If the outer walls of the house are carefully insulated, energy costs will be significantly reduced.
Choice of insulation
Before starting any work, you need to take care of the materials and think about which insulation is best. Mineral wool, consisting of artificial mineral fibers, is suitable for cladding the outer wall of a house. It is divided into two types: stone and slag. It is sold in slabs or rolls. It does not allow moisture to pass through, does not burn, does not react to dampness, and is resistant to mechanical damage, protects against insects and retains heat well. It is very convenient to work with her.
You can use glass wool produced from waste from glass production for insulation. It has similar properties to mineral wool, but during insulation work with such material you need to wear protective gloves, a face mask and goggles. This will prevent small parts from getting into your respiratory tract or eyes.
Polystyrene foam or polystyrene foam is very popular. Plates made of this material are very light and have a cellular structure. It is the cheapest material, so it is often used in the construction of houses. There are two types: dense and porous. Now there are non-flammable ones. This is an important quality for the safety of your home. After installing such material, a layer of plaster or other type of cladding must be applied to the external walls. IN open form Such insulation is not left.
Wall insulation
There are two ways to apply insulation to the surface of an external brick wall:
- A bonded method of laying slabs joint-to-joint without leaving any gaps.
- Sheathing, stuffed onto the external surface of the house, into the cavities of which pieces of insulation are inserted.
Nowadays, the bonded method of insulation is very popular, since this way of laying the material does not leave so-called “cold paths” - these are places where the insulation material does not come into contact with each other behind the sheathing, and unprotected strips of the wall remain. With the fastened method, the tiles are well joined, and the house is completely protected, without cracks.
The first step in insulation will be leveling the surface of the walls. To do this, the surface is plastered, then a layer of glue is applied and an insulation board is applied. The edges and center are reinforced with special dowels, and the cracks are filled with foam. If the distance between the plates is significant, then better space fill with a cut strip of insulation.
The next stage of work on insulating the external walls of a house is the application of a reinforcing layer, which is a fiberglass mesh or metal mesh. A thick layer of glue is applied to the insulation boards and the mesh is pressed in. Using smoothing movements, the reinforcement layer is leveled. After the glue has completely dried, the surface is cleaned and prepared for last stage to finishing with decorative plaster, which is subsequently painted.
Plastered and painted house
After applying the insulation, budget-conscious owners can simply plaster the house and paint it with paint for exposed surfaces. Plaster can be made in relief, volumetric or textured. It is widely used nowadays for finishing works. The relief plasters on the façade are in harmony with the smooth surfaces made of natural materials.
To form a relief layer of plaster, a trowel and trowels, a sponge and various graters are used. In this case, you need to act quickly, forming a relief pattern on the base coat layer that has not yet dried. An interesting element of decorating with relief plaster is painting the texture with several contrasting colors. To do this, after applying the main color, the paint that has not yet dried needs to be shaded with a special mitten.
Cladding the house with natural stone
The stone facades of the external walls give the impression of solidity and respectability. Natural stone is always pleasing to the eye, even if the house is not completely lined, but only, for example, the base. This is an environmentally friendly and durable material that keeps the house cool in summer and does not release heat outside in winter. Installation work is carried out easily and quickly.
The only drawback of this material is its weight. Delivery of the material will be quite expensive, and the stone itself is not cheap. There is an artificial substitute that is much lighter and cheaper, but its service life is much shorter.
Facade tiles
Facade tiles are used to decorate and protect the house from moisture. It comes in several varieties: clinker, terracotta and decorative.
Clinker tiles resemble bricks in appearance, only smooth and bright. Such tiles can be used to cover a building made of foam blocks or sand-lime brick.
After finishing work, the house acquires clear lines and brightness of the brickwork. And such a coating will last a long time. Therefore, both in Europe and in Russia this cladding is very popular. You can use tiles to lay out paths in your garden plot.
Terracotta and decorative tiles less popular, but have the same properties. The variety of colors and shapes will attract the attention of people who want to have an original and unique design for their home.
Wood paneling
Since ancient times, cladding the exterior walls of a house with wood has been very popular. Nowadays a material called “block house” is popular. After covering the walls, the structure becomes like wooden frame. This material looks expensive and has good characteristics. It is lightweight, easy to install and durable. In case of minor mechanical damage, the material can be sanded and repainted.
Finishing of external walls can also be done using wooden lining. The quality and durability of the material depends on the choice of wood. Inexpensive and comfortable pine paneling. But if you buy oak, the service life will be extended significantly: oak does not rot, it looks expensive, but is also expensive.
Any wood covering for walls requires treatment special compounds, which protect the tree from rotting, protect against fungus, mold, and insects. The façade will have to be varnished or painted frequently. This way you keep it neat appearance building.
Siding
Modern plastic material is made by extruding a vinyl mixture through holes of various shapes. Now siding is produced in two layers: it is more durable, non-flammable, and protects well from water and seasonal temperature changes. The material is not subject to erosion, does not rot, does not conduct electricity, resistant to mechanical damage, has a long service life (50 years).
According to the type of installation, vertical and horizontal panels are distinguished. They are fastened with self-tapping screws.
In addition to vinyl, metal siding is produced. To produce such panels, they are wrapped on all sides with a passivated layer and painted with protective paint.
Material selection
Before you decide and purchase cladding material for the exterior walls of your home, you need to weigh the pros and cons. Consider the weight, price and quality of the material. When purchasing, be sure to check the integrity of the packaging so as not to receive low-quality cladding with broken corners.
When purchasing natural stone, you need to check that the stones are the right color.
Wooden lining is selected without knots and blue spots.
Siding must be uniform in color, thickness and shape.
When purchasing expensive material, it is advisable to use the services of trusted manufacturers who have proven themselves in the market, or listen to the reviews of professional builders.
Walls are the main load-bearing and enclosing structures of a building. They must be strong, rigid and stable, have the required fire resistance and durability, be low thermal conductivity, heat resistant, sufficiently air and soundproof, and also economical.
Basically, external influences on buildings are perceived by roofs and walls (Fig. 2.13).
The wall has three parts: the lower one is the plinth, the middle one is the main field, the upper one is the entablature (cornice).
Figure 2.13 External impacts on the building: 1 - permanent and temporary vertical force impacts; 2 - wind; 3 - special force impacts (seismic or others); 4- vibrations; 5 - lateral soil pressure; 6- ground pressure (resistance); 7 - ground moisture; 8 - noise; 9 - solar radiation; 10 - precipitation; 11 - state of the atmosphere (variable temperature and humidity, presence of chemical impurities)
By the nature of perception and transmission of loads walls (external and internal) are divided into load-bearing, self-supporting and curtain walls (with a load-bearing frame) (Fig. 2.14). Load-bearing walls must ensure the strength, rigidity and stability of the building from the effects of wind loads, as well as loads on floors and coverings, transferring the resulting forces through the foundations to the base. Self-supporting walls must maintain their strength, rigidity and stability when exposed to loads from wind, their own weight and the overlying part of the wall. Curtain walls, intended only to protect premises from atmospheric influences (cold, noise), are constructed using highly effective lightweight multilayer heat-insulating materials. They usually transfer the load (wind) within one panel and from their own mass to the elements of the supporting frame of the building.
By the nature of placement in the building a distinction is made between external walls, i.e. enclosing the building, and internal walls - separating rooms.
By type of materials used the walls can be wooden (logs, paving stones, frame-panel panels, etc.), made of stone materials, concrete, reinforced concrete, as well as multilayer (using highly effective heat-insulating materials as a heat-insulating layer).
The main parts of external walls are plinths, openings, piers, lintels, pilasters, buttresses, pediment, cornices and parapets (Fig. 2.14). Basement - the lower part of the wall adjacent to the foundation. The walls have openings for windows, doors and gates. The sections of walls between the openings are called piers, and those above the openings are called lintels. The crown cornice is the upper protruding part of the wall. Parapet is part of the wall enclosing the roof in buildings with internal drainage.
Figure 2.14 Wall structures: a - load-bearing in a frameless building; b - the same in a building with an incomplete frame; c - self-supporting; g - mounted; d - main parts of the walls; 1- foundation; 2 - wall; 3 - overlap; 4 - crossbar; 5 - column; 6 - foundation beam; 7 - strapping beam; 8 - base; 9 - opening; 10 - cornice; 1 - pier; 12 - jumper
In frame one-story industrial buildings, having large openings, significant height and length of the walls, to ensure their stability, half-timbering is used, which is a reinforced concrete or steel frame that supports the walls, and also absorbs the wind load and transfers it to the main frame of the building.
According to the design solution, the walls can be solid, or layered.
Walls are the most expensive structures. The cost of external and internal walls is up to 35% of the cost of the building. Consequently, the effectiveness of the structural design of the walls significantly affects the technical and economic indicators of the entire building.
When selecting and designing the wall structure of civil buildings, it is necessary to:
- reduce material consumption, labor intensity, estimated cost and cost;
- use the most effective materials and wall products;
- reduce the mass of walls;
- make maximum use of the physical and mechanical properties of materials;
- use materials with high construction and performance qualities, ensuring the durability of the walls.
In terms of thermal engineering, the enclosing parts of buildings must meet the following requirements:
- provide the necessary resistance to the passage of heat through them;
- not have a temperature on the internal surface that is significantly different from the indoor air temperature so that cold is not felt near the fences and condensation does not form on the surface;
- possessing sufficient heat resistance (thermal inertia) so that fluctuations in external and internal temperatures are less reflected in fluctuations in the temperature of the internal surface.
- maintain normal humidity conditions, as humidification reduces the heat-protective properties of the fence.
Brick walls. The materials for masonry are bricks: ordinary clay, silicate, hollow plastic pressed; hollow brick semi-dry pressed. (Fig. 2.15) When making a brick stack, their thickness can be different, depending on the climatic zone. So, in Almaty conditions the wall thickness is 510 mm (2 bricks), and for internal load-bearing walls- 380mm (one and a half bricks) and even 250mm. Ceramic hollow stones and small concrete blocks (eg 490x340x388) can be used. Brick grades 50 - 150.
Ordinary clay brick is manufactured in dimensions 250x120x65 mm (88 mm) and has a volumetric mass of 1700 - 1900 kg/m 3.
Effective clay bricks are produced hollow and lightweight. The volumetric mass of hollow brick is 1300 - 1450 kg/m 3, lightweight brick is 700 - 1000 kg/m 3 or more.
Sand-lime brick has a volumetric mass of 1800 - 2000 kg/m 3 ; dimensions 250x120x65 (88 mm).
Slag brick has a volumetric mass of 1200 -1400 kg/m 3.
Hollow ceramic stones differ from hollow bricks in height dimensions (138, 188, 298 mm), shape and location of voids. Ceramic stones of plastic pressing with 7 and 18 voids and have dimensions 250x120x138 mm, volumetric mass 1400 kg/m 3
Lightweight concrete stones There are solid and hollow ones with a volumetric mass of 1100 - 1600 kg/m 3.
The dimensions of stones with slot-like blind voids are 190x390x188 and 90x390x188, three-hollow ones - 120x250x138 mm.
Stones with slot-like voids have the best thermal performance.
Facing bricks and stones are divided into profile and ordinary (solid and hollow).
Shaped ceramic slabs are either embedded or leaned.
In addition to ceramic products, concrete and other non-fired slabs and stones can be used for wall cladding. Natural stones and slabs from: natural stone is used for laying foundations and walls, for cladding (in the form of facing slabs - sawn, chipped, hewn, polished). Natural stone is also used to make floors, window sills and stair steps. Solid masonry made from ordinary brick and heavy stone materials is used to a limited extent - where increased strength is required, as well as in rooms with high humidity. In other cases it is recommended; use lightweight masonry.
The masonry is carried out using heavy (sand) or light (slag) mortars of grade 10; 25 - 50 and 100.
Continuous masonry is carried out using a multi-row (spoon) or single-row (chain) seam dressing system; masonry of narrow walls (no more than 1.0 m wide) is the same as masonry brick pillars, is carried out according to a three-row system. The thickness of horizontal seams is assumed to be 12 mm, vertical 10 mm. For lightness and insulation, wells filled with lightweight concrete are left in the wall.
Figure 2.15 Walls made of brick and ceramic stones: a- single-row; b- multi-row; c - systems L.I. Onishchika; g - brick and concrete; d-well; e-s air gap; g - with slab insulation; 1- poke; 2 spoons; 3-light concrete; 4-air gap; 5-plaster; 6-board insulation; 7-grout.
Walls made of large blocks. Buildings from large blocks are constructed without frames and with frames (Fig. 2.16.). By purpose large blocks are divided into blocks for external and internal walls, for walls of basements and plinths, and special blocks (eaves, for bathrooms, etc.). The material for large blocks is lightweight concrete with a class of at least B5 (slag concrete, expanded clay concrete, cellular concrete large-porous concrete, concrete on porous crushed stones) volumetric weight 1000; 1400 and 1600 kg/m3.
Concrete blocks for external walls they have a thickness of 300; 400 and 500 mm, for internal walls 300 mm. Outside surface blocks are textured with decorative concrete or facing tiles, and the inner surface is prepared for finishing.
Walls made of large panels. According to their design, the panels are divided into single-layer and multi-layer (Fig. 2.17). Single-layer panels are made from lightweight concrete with a volumetric weight of up to 1200 kg/m 3, which has the required frost resistance and heat-insulating qualities.
Multilayer panels (two-layer and three-layer) consist of a load-bearing shell that absorbs all loads and insulation. The outer surface of the panels can be textured with a 20mm thick decorative layer of white and colored cement, lined with ceramic tiles, etc. The inner surface of the panels must have a finishing layer 10mm thick.
The transfer of vertical forces in horizontal joints between panels represents the most difficult task of large-panel construction.
Figure 2.16.Large-block walls of civil buildings: a - two-, three- and four-row cutting of external load-bearing walls; b-main types of wall blocks; c - double-row cutting of self-supporting walls; I, II, III, IV - rows of blocks; d - diagrams of the arrangement of blocks in axonometry; blocks: 1- wall; 2 - jumper; 3 - window sill; 4-belt.
Figure 2.17 Panel walls civil buildings: Cutting of external walls: a- single-row with panels per room; b- the same for two rooms; c- double-row cutting of the panel structure; g-single-layer concrete; d - two-layer reinforced concrete; e - the same three-layer; g - from rolled slabs; 1- panel with an opening; 2- strip panel; 3- wall panel; 4 - reinforcement frame; 5 - lightweight concrete; 6 - decorative concrete; 7 - insulation; 8 - heating panel; 9 - reinforced concrete slab; 10 - rolled plate.
Four main types of connections have been used in practice (Fig. 2.18):
- platform joint, the peculiarity of which is that the floors are supported by half the thickness of the transverse wall panels, i.e. stepwise transmission of forces, in which forces are transmitted from panel to panel through the supporting parts of the floor slabs;
- serrated joint, representing a modification of a platform-type joint, provides deeper support for floor slabs, which, like a “dovetail”, rest on the entire width of the wall panel, but forces are transferred from panel to panel not directly, but through the supporting parts of the floor slabs;
- contact joint with the ceilings supported on remote consoles and direct transfer of forces from panel to panel;
- contact-socket the joint with the support of the panels is also based on the principle of direct transfer of forces from panel to panel and the support of the floors through consoles or ribs (“fingers”) protruding from the slabs themselves and placed in specially placed slots in the transverse panels.
Platform junction applied for all types of nine-story buildings, and also, as an experiment, in 17-story and 25-story buildings with a narrow pitch of transverse load-bearing walls.
Figure 2.18 Types of horizontal joints between load-bearing panels: a-platform; b-toothed; c- contact on remote consoles; g-contact-socket
Walls are the main element of a house, determining its appearance, operational and aesthetic characteristics. They must satisfy a number of requirements for architectural expressiveness, thermal protection and fire resistance, have sufficient strength and durability, provide the necessary sound insulation, etc.
The choice of material for the walls depends on the taste and financial capabilities of the owner of the house, the traditions of the building area, but you should pay attention to the neighboring houses and listen to the opinion of the architect. Your house should fit into the architectural ensemble and, regardless of the funds invested in construction, look beautiful and organic.
The material for the walls can be wood, brick, natural stone, as well as concrete blocks and panels with various additives (slag, expanded clay, sawdust, etc.).
According to their purpose, walls are classified as external and internal, and according to the perception of loads - load-bearing and non-load-bearing.
Depending on the materials used, walls are conventionally divided into the following types:
wooden from logs, beams, wooden frames,
brick made of solid and hollow clay,
ceramic and silicate bricks and blocks,
stone made of cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.,
lightweight concrete made of gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, slag concrete, argolite, sawdust concrete,
soil concrete made of adobe, compacted soil.
According to the constructive solution, the walls are:
chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams,
small block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg.,
panel or panel from ready-made wall elements one floor high,
framed from racks and frames covered with sheet or molded materials,
monolithic from concrete and soil,
composite or multilayer using various materials and designs.
Materials for the construction of walls and their constructive solution are chosen taking into account local climatic conditions, economics, the specified strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of the facades.
Natural stones and solid bricks have the greatest strength and durability.
At the same time, in terms of their heat-protective qualities, they are significantly inferior to lightweight concrete, efficient brick and wood. Their use in " pure form“Without combination with other, less thermally conductive materials, it is justified only in the southern regions of the country.
When building brick walls, you should strive for lightweight masonry, using efficient bricks and creating voids using warm mortar.
Solid brickwork of solid brick walls with a thickness of more than 38 cm is considered impractical.
Reliable in operation and 1.5-2 times cheaper than brick, lightweight concrete walls based on slag, expanded clay or sawdust using cement.
If you use pre-fabricated lightweight concrete blocks, you can significantly reduce the seasonal construction time.
The traditional material for the walls of low-rise buildings is wood.
According to sanitary and hygienic requirements, chopped and cobblestone walls are the most comfortable. Their disadvantages include low fire resistance and sedimentary deformations in the first 1.5-2 years.
If lumber and effective insulation are available, frame walls are quite justified.
They, like chopped ones, do not require massive foundations, but unlike them they do not have post-construction deformations.
When facing frame walls with bricks, their fire resistance and capital strength are significantly increased.
In southern regions with sharp changes in day and night outside air temperatures, walls made of soil concrete (adobe) “behave well”. Due to their great thermal inertia (they heat up and cool down slowly), they create an optimal thermal regime in such a climate.
Types in roof construction
The roof of a house is not only protection from weather conditions (snow, rain, sun, wind, etc.), but also the appearance of the house. Beautiful roof, like an elegant hat, decorates a house and emphasizes its individuality, is the crown of an architectural structure.
A roof of almost any configuration consists of a supporting structure - trusses and sheathing - and the roof itself.
The presence of certain roof elements is determined by its shape and design features.
The shape of the roof is chosen depending on the purpose of the building and its size.
Shed roof Most often, outbuildings, garages, and sheds are hidden. For residential and garden houses, gable and mansard roof shapes are traditional. They are easy to manufacture and can be covered with any roofing materials. In the southern regions they are more often arranged hip roofs, since they better withstand wind loads.
Roofing materials
Of the roofing materials, slate has the most reliable and durable properties. For low-rise buildings the best roofing material is tiles, but it requires reinforced rafters due to the weight of the tiles.
Roofing steel is used for complex roof configurations. Roll roofs used for covering utility rooms or as temporary covering in residential buildings. In one-story houses with an average load-bearing wall Usually a roof is installed with inclined rafters, one end resting on the outer wall, the other on a purlin or rack installed above the middle wall. The elements of the rafters are connected to each other with rafter brackets and nails.
: 1 - gable; 2 - attic; 3, 4 - hip; 5 - tent; 6 - multi-pincer.
The ends of the rafters are attached to the chopped walls with staples. The rafters are attached to the stone walls as follows: first, a metal ruff is hammered into the wall, no higher than the fourth seam of the masonry. The rafters are attached to the ruff using wire twists in two loops.
The ends of the rafters of a stone house rest on a beam laid along the entire length of the wall, which distributes the load from the rafters onto the wall. A fire-prevention gap is created in the rafters and sheathing where the chimney passes from the stove; a gap of 13 cm is left between the elements of the rafters, the pipe and the sheathing.
Roof elements: 1 - slopes; 2 - skate; 3 - inclined rib; 4 - groove; 5 - cornice overhang; 6 - gable overhang; 7 - gutter; 8 - drainpipe; 9 - chimney.
Construction roof trusses various shapes have their own characteristics. The basis of any truss is a triangle, as the most rigid and economical structure. It is formed from 2-rafter legs (upper chord of the truss) and a tie (lower chord). The rafter legs are connected at their upper ends to the ridge girder. The lower ends of the rafters, as well as the ends of the lower chord, are attached to the external walls of the house. The structure, consisting only of the upper and lower chords, can only withstand a very light roof. For greater reliability, the trusses are equipped with additional internal supports (struts, risers, contractions).
Construction trusses create the required roof slope, which depends on a number of factors:
Climate features: with large quantities precipitation, the roof slope is 45° or more, with prevailing winds the slope is much lower, etc.;
Roofing material: when using piece roofing materials, the slope is at least 22°, for rolled materials - 5-25° or more, for asbestos-cement sheets and tiles - 25-35° or more.
It must be remembered that as the roof slope increases, the consumption of materials increases, and, accordingly, its cost.
Depending on the method of attaching the truss to the walls of the house, structures with hanging or inclined rafters are distinguished.
Hanging rafters are in the same plane, rigidly connected to each other and supported by two outer supports (outer walls).
: 1 - brace; 2 - single tightening; 3 - board-overlay; 4 - lining; 5 - outer wall; 6 - overlay.
The support for the lower ends of the rafters are mauerlats, hewn into two edges. The simplest hanging trusses consist of rafter legs and a tie (lower chord). To protect the rafter legs from sagging if their cross-section is insufficient, a lattice consisting of a post, struts and a crossbar is inserted between them. This increases the rigidity of the truss structure. The rafter legs are strengthened with staples and tied with wire 4-6 mm thick to ruffs driven into the wall. This protects the roof from possible collapse in strong winds. The lower end of such a twist is secured to a spike or ruff driven into the masonry seam 250-300 mm below the edge of the wall, or to an attic floor beam. In wooden log houses the rafters are fastened with staples to the second crown of the frame.
: 1 - brace; 2 - Mauerlat; 3 - twist; 4 - outer wall; 5 - internal wall; 6 - cutting; 7 - lying down; 8 - roofing material.
For installation hanging rafters it is necessary to raise the rafters made in advance, each separately, to attic floor, and then assemble them, using auxiliary braces and sawing boards for temporary fastening of the truss. The truss units of hanging rafters are assembled with or without a crossbar for spans of up to 6 or 8 meters. Single tightening is made from the same boards as the rafters; for double tightening, boards of smaller thickness are suitable. For crossbar overlays, 25-30 mm boards are suitable. If the rigidity of the roof is provided by a truss, then 1-2 diagonal ties (braces) are installed to counteract wind loads in the transverse direction. The braces are made from boards 30-40 mm thick, attached to the base of the rafter leg and to the middle of the adjacent one. It is most convenient to place the braces above the middle wall. In this case, the boards are nailed to the rack and bed. The cross-section of the rafters depends on the size of the span, the pitch of the rafters and the slope of the roof. The most common rafter pitch is 120 cm.
Inclined rafters are laid obliquely on supports different heights. The supports are either two external walls, or an external and internal wall. When installing a gable roof, a support wall is required for inclined rafters.
The rafter legs of opposite roof slopes can be in the same plane and are laid alternately on the ridge girder. Layered rafters are easy to assemble and do not require complex mechanisms for installation. The units of layered rafters are assembled with struts and racks.
If the width of the building is 10 m, one additional support is sufficient, and if it reaches 15 m, then two supports are desirable. The upper ends of the rafter legs are overlapped using corner pads. The lower ends of the rafters are attached to support bars (mauerlats) measuring 100x100 mm. Mauerlats in most cases are prepared from whole logs, hewn into two edges, but sometimes, in order to save money, they are made from scraps 0.6-0.7 meters long. A middle post is installed in the middle of the truss, on which the top of the upper chord of the truss rests.
A purlin is laid at the top of the roof truss structure, which serves as the basis for the future roof ridge. Ridge run either made from logs with a wide cross-section, or knocked together from two boards 50 mm thick.
Trusses of a special design are made for mansard roofs. They can also be installed with mounting on the internal wall (for two-bay houses) or without it (for single-bay houses). A feature of attic trusses is the presence of an interfloor ceiling instead of a tie. This is due to the fact that the lower belt serves as the basis for the floor of the attic room. The upper and lower chords, as well as vertical risers and horizontal contractions must be paired, made of double beams. For a two-bay attic structure, doubling is not necessary, since it has additional support in the center.
Modern houses with an attic are often made without a broken roof structure, with the wall positioned at an angle to the floor.
: A - hanging truss of a single-span house; B - truss with struts; B - truss for a single-span house more than 8 m wide; G - inclined truss; D - truss for the attic roof.
For lighting attic floor Additional windows are often installed in roof slopes. Such windows can be installed not only for lighting. They are often made in the form of vents designed to access the roof and ventilate the attic space.
In order for the roofs of buildings to have the overhang necessary to drain water from the walls, the tie rods or rafter legs are extended beyond the wall line. Wooden buildings must have an overhang of at least 550 mm.
The sheathing of the building is the basis for the roof deck. Depending on the type of roof, the sheathing can be made of boards, bars or planks.
The sheathing directly bears the load of the roofing material and, in turn, puts pressure on the rafters, and the rafters transfer the weight of the roof to the load-bearing walls.
The sheathing can be continuous, when the gap between the beams does not exceed 1 cm, or sparse. Solid formwork, as a rule, is made of two layers: the first - discharged and the second - solid from boards laid at an angle of 45° relative to the boards of the lower layer.
A continuous sheathing is installed under a soft roof, flat asbestos-cement and non-asbestos slate, metal tiles and soft tiles. Sparse lathing is quite suitable for steel roofing, roofing made of clay or cement-sand tiles, as well as for roofing made of corrugated asbestos-cement sheets.
Sheathing beams are nailed to the rafters with nails, the length of which is equal to the thickness of two beams. At the joints and intersections of slopes (at the ridge, ribs, valleys, valleys), as well as along eaves overhangs, a continuous sheathing is always made.
Typically the supporting structure is made of softwood.
In brick and block houses, rafters and sheathing can be made of reinforced concrete or metal.
The optimal sheathing size for most roofing coverings is bars measuring 50x50 mm (60x60 mm) or poles with a diameter of 70 mm. The average distance between the rafter legs is about 1 m. On roofs with a slope of more than 45°, this distance increases to 1.2-1.4 m and on the roofs of houses located in snowy areas, it decreases to 0.8-0.6 meters .
Distances between rafters of supporting structure (m)
Currently, to facilitate private construction, the industry produces ready-made truss structures, which only need to be assembled, laid on the external walls and lathed on top of them. Load-bearing structures are made of wood, reinforced concrete or metal. All structures are prefabricated. They are delivered to the place construction work disassembled and folded in place. A folding structure can consist of several elements packed together. Some structures are quite cumbersome even when disassembled, as they are divided into three large parts: for the eaves and for the ridge. Others are made up of smaller planes. The most convenient to use are hinged structures equipped with hinges either in the ridge girder or along the eaves. Hinges allow the supporting structure to be folded and unfolded without problems.
Ready-made forms truss structures reflect almost all existing roof configurations.
The sheathing beams are attached to the finished trusses in the manner provided for by the structure itself. The battens are simply nailed to the rafters made of wood. As for reinforced concrete trusses, they can have either holes for nails, or outlets with a diameter of up to 6 mm, which grip and firmly hold the sheathing bars, or spikes on which the sheathing is pinned.
Often the base under roofing materials requires additional leveling. So, reinforced concrete slabs, as well as the base on which semi-rigid or loose insulation is laid, are leveled with screeds made of cement-sand mortar or asphalt concrete.
: 1 - gable truss; 2 - truss with a complex shape of the upper chord; 3 - scissor truss; 4 - vaulted truss; 5 - attic truss.
Leveling with sand asphalt concrete is permissible only on roofs with a slope of no more than 20%.
screeds are performed in the following order: with a slope of up to 15% - first at junctions and valleys, and then on slopes; with a slope of more than 15%, work to level the base is carried out in the reverse order.
Leveling screeds are not installed continuously over the entire surface of the base, but in areas measuring 6x6 m (for cement-sand mortar) or 4x4 m (for asphalt concrete). Between these areas, temperature-shrinkable seams are made 5 mm wide or 1 cm wide with laths placed in them. For lice, strips of roofing material 150 mm wide are laid with spot gluing on one side of the seam.
The thickness of the asphalt concrete screed depends on the base material: if the base is made of concrete or rigid thermal insulation boards, the thickness of the screed should be 15-20 mm, and if made of non-rigid insulation, then 20-30 mm. Asphalt concrete screed is installed only on slopes.
After installing the leveling screed, the base must be immediately primed, which will ensure more durable adhesion of the rolled and waterproofing materials. Before this, all unevenness in the base is sealed with cement mortar. The screeds are primed in strips 4-5 m wide.
The quality of the foundation device is checked according to the following indicators:
Evenness;
Strength and rigidity (the base should not fall or sag underfoot);
Smoothness and roundness of junctions and grooves (for more durable gluing of rolled materials).
The strip foundation is almost universal. It is used both in the construction of small wooden buildings and in the construction of large-sized ones. brick houses. Perfectly suited for any soil. The strip foundation must be laid at least 50-70 cm or 20 cm below the freezing depth.
Let's take a closer look at the design of strip foundations. First, the bottom of the hole dug under the foundation is covered with sand (15-20 cm). Then fill it with water and compact it. Next, crushed stone or gravel is laid in a layer of 10 cm and filled with cement. Then this procedure is repeated layer by layer. Above ground, concrete is placed in formwork to the required level. 3 hours after installation is completed, the entire surface is covered with burlap. With this scheme for pouring a strip foundation, concrete savings of up to 50 percent occur.
In order for the strip foundation to be strong, it is necessary to use premium grade cement. Also, to achieve the best quality when preparing concrete, it is necessary to use clean water, preferably from a well.
Slab foundations are quite popular and widespread. Thanks to the rigid structure - a monolithic slab made under the entire area of the building, they are not afraid of any movement of the soil: the slab moves with it, protecting it from destruction of the house structure. Therefore, this kind of foundation is also called floating.
A solid slab of floating foundations is made of reinforced concrete and has rigid reinforcement along the entire load-bearing plane. This further increases their resistance to loads arising from freezing, thawing and soil subsidence.
Solid (slab) foundations are used in the following cases:
in case of weak soils at the construction site or under significant loads from the building;
in case of destroyed, washed away or bulk foundation soils;
with uneven compressibility of soils;
if necessary, protection from high groundwater levels.
The construction of slab foundations requires a relatively large consumption of concrete and metal and can be justified in low-rise construction when constructing small and simple-shaped buildings and structures on heavy heaving, moving and subsiding soils, as well as in cases where a high base is not required and the top of the slab foundation can be used as basement floor.
Slab foundations are designed in the form of flat and ribbed slabs or in the form of cross strips. For buildings with heavy loads, as well as in the case of using underground space, box foundations are used.
Slab foundations are designed for buildings mainly with a frame structural system. To increase the rigidity of the slab, ribs are arranged in cross directions, which can be made either with the ribs up or down in relation to
At the intersections of the edges of the foundation slab, columns are installed for frame structural system, and in wall ribs are used as the walls of the basement of the building, on which the supporting structures of its ground part are installed.
Box-section foundations are used in the construction of high-rise buildings with heavy loads. The ribs of such a slab are made to the full height of the underground part of the building and are rigidly connected to the floors, thus forming closed sections of various configurations.
A columnar foundation, as its name already implies, is a set of individual pillars dug into the ground. First of all, such pillars are located at the intersections of the walls of the house, and at the same time they can be located in the spans between them. The upper end of the pillars is called the head, the lower end is called the base. The house will subsequently be placed on the heads, so all pillars must be at the same level - this will be the floor level of the first floor, usually at a height of 40-50 cm from the ground. Such a gap between the floor of the house and the ground is necessary to avoid dampness, from which the wooden structures of the lower part of the house (namely, wooden houses are most often built on columnar foundations) will quickly rot.
The shape of foundation pillars can be different - square, rectangular, round, but the most common are pillars with a round cross-section, because wells can be drilled under such pillars with a hand drill. The diameter of the pillars can vary from 15 cm or more, but when building a columnar foundation with your own hands you will have to choose from the following diameters: 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, 400 mm. Wells of exactly this diameter can be drilled using most hand drills sold. The depth of a columnar foundation is usually about 2 m (below the freezing depth). The base area of a columnar foundation is small, so in order to withstand the load from the house it must rest on a layer of soil with high bearing capacity.
Foundation columns can be made from different materials: wood, brick, monolithic concrete. A wooden beam or log can be burned or treated with an antiseptic to prevent (or at least slow down) wood rotting. You can also use waterproofing materials, but still such pillars will be the least reliable option.
Brickwork is a completely acceptable option in terms of strength, but this option is far from ideal in terms of ease of construction. It is not possible to lay a pillar of bricks directly in the well itself. Folding the pole completely on the surface of the ground and then lowering it into the hole also does not seem like a quick and pleasant task.
By far the best material in all respects is monolithic reinforced concrete. They provide the greatest compressive strength and, when reinforced, tensile strength. A reinforced monolithic pillar will not crack under any influence of frost heaving forces. Dilute concrete mixture and pouring it into a dug well is a fairly simple operation.
Foundation pillars can have constant or variable cross section. In the first case it is a simple cylinder or parallelepiped, in the second it is more complex shape with widening at the bottom of the column. This widening allows you to increase the base area and, accordingly, increase the bearing capacity of the foundation: the weight of the house will be distributed over a larger area. The second advantage is greater resistance to frost heaving of the soil. If the column expands at the bottom, then heaving forces will not be able to push it upward.
During the construction of multi-story buildings for various purposes Lightweight enclosing structures of external walls are widely used: solid and layered made of lightweight concrete, metal, wood, asbestos cement, dry gypsum plaster, polymer, fibrous and other materials.
The simplest type of exterior wall is a lightweight concrete panel. Lightweight concrete, intended for large-panel building structures, in terms of structure and properties (strength, weight, thermal conductivity, water and air permeability, humidity, deformability, crack resistance, frost resistance, etc.) reliably meets operational requirements.
The structure of lightweight concrete is determined by the dosage of porous aggregate (expanded clay, shungizite, agloporite, slag-pumice crushed stone, their volcanic, perlite slag and tuff), cement, binders, additives and water, the method and mode of preparation.
For single-layer panels of external walls with a thickness of 30 cm, they are used next lungs concrete: expanded clay concrete with a volumetric mass of 900-1200 kg/m³, strength 10-15 MPa and thermal conductivity 0.28-0.35 W/(m²×°C); gypsum perlite concrete with a volumetric mass of 600-780 kg/m³ and thermal conductivity of 0.1-0.35 W/(m²×°C).
During the construction of buildings in Moscow, three-layer panels of external walls 28 cm thick, insulated with cement fiberboard (15 cm), with internal (7 cm) and external (6 cm) reinforced concrete layers, became widespread; 38 cm thick, insulated PSB foam plastic(12 cm). with inner (19 cm) and outer (7 cm) reinforced concrete layers.
Cutting external wall panels residential buildings made of lightweight concrete, has been developed over many years of manufacturing, transportation and installation practice and has a “donut” shape, i.e. a rectangular shape with closed loop and windows. With a floor height of residential buildings of 2.8 m, its dimensions are 278x298 cm for a step of 3 m. For steps of 3 + 3.6 m, the length of the panel will be 658 cm, and for 3.6 + 3.6 - 718 cm (two-module). Cutting external wall panels public buildings must take into account their purpose. The design and construction practice of the USSR and other countries is rich in a variety of cuts: vertical - two-story with wall inserts, T-shaped, H-shaped, etc.
One of the ways to increase the heat-insulating properties of external multilayer wall panels is to replace solid concrete frames along the contour of the panel and window with metal point flexible connections. The thermal insulation qualities of external wall panels are defined in SNiP 11-3-79 taking into account the temperature difference Δt H, defined as the difference between the air temperature inside and outside, as well as the protection of the insulating layers of multi-layer enclosing structures from the penetration of moisture from internal air into them as a result of the diffusion of water pair. The heat transfer resistance of enclosing structures R 0 must be greater than the required R 0 tr. Thermal insulation qualities of the main joints of external wall structures (made of expanded clay concrete - solid and three-layer concrete, with effective insulation) must comply with the requirements of SNiP 11-3-79. To calculate the thermal conductivity of expanded clay concrete, a coefficient of 0.4-0.6 W/m²K should be taken. In the structures shown at the junction points, the temperature (t) on the inner surface of the wall must be no lower than the dew point, i.e., correspond to 12 °C, and in places of heat-conducting inclusions - 8.8 °C.
Multi-storey construction of residential and public buildings has led to the need to replace traditional load-bearing external walls, which simultaneously perform the functions of bearing loads, thermal insulation and protection from atmospheric influences, with curtain external walls, which are constructed solid and two-, three-layer. If we take into account the general trend in construction development - reducing the weight of buildings and the use of efficient materials, it becomes clear how promising lightweight curtain panels of sandwich-type multilayer structures are. Due to their low weight, sandwich-type external wall panels can be made to great lengths and are only limited by transport conditions. As a rule, panels of this type have a strip shape with a width of 60 to 240 cm and a length of 3 to 15 m. Based on the materials used and design features, lightweight, multilayer panels are made in the following varieties: outer and inner layers - asbestos cement sheets, insulating filler-perlite concrete (mineral wool); outer and inner layers - aluminum sheets, insulating filler - polyurethane foam or FRP-1 foam, or mineral wool slabs with a phenolic binder, outer and inner layers - cement spray, insulating layer - wood concrete.
The listed types of external wall panel designs provide a fire resistance of 0.75 hours, and an arbolite panel up to 1.5 hours. The thermal properties of the panels are ensured by the thickness of the insulating layer. Thus, an arbolite panel with a thickness of 250 mm, i.e. with a thickness of insulation layer of 200 mm, is designed to operate at a temperature of 25 °C.
The scope of application of sandwich panels is not limited to public buildings and can extend to residential buildings, and in terms of design features it corresponds to a frame structural system, although its use in a panel system does not lead to any difficulties. The weight of some types of panels measuring 120x300 cm is 70-80 kg, which allows two installers to manually install them directly from the floor. Using lightweight panels in construction practice, a rational scheme for organizing installation work has been developed, which is as follows:
- lifting a set of external wall panels by crane onto the floor ceiling;
- installation and manual straightening of individual panels along the outer perimeter of the building.
Sandwich-type wall panels have the following advantages in comparison with concrete and expanded clay-concrete panels: in their production, new, more efficient materials are used, which make it possible to reduce heat and energy costs for heating, material consumption and weight of external wall structures, which in turn makes it possible to reduce material consumption and masses load-bearing structures(walls or columns). With an increase in the dimensions of the external wall panels, the number of installation units per building and, accordingly, the labor intensity of its construction decreases.
Depending on the materials and prefabrication technology, the front layer of multilayer panels of external walls can be manufactured monolithically connected to the panel or not connected to it, taking into account its subsequent hanging during installation. As a rule, this option is used in the construction of public buildings constructed using expensive materials for the front layer. Hanging it at the final stage of finishing the building ensures better preservation of the scarce, expensive front layer. This method corresponds to a special system for fastening face sheets along guides hidden fastenings using a snap-on strip.
Separating the face layer from the outer wall panel opened up unlimited possibilities in the use of various materials for the manufacture of the face layer:
- anodized
- painted or enameled aluminum
- enameled steel
- stamped plastic (polyvinyl chloride)
- tempered glass (heat-absorbing or heat-reflecting).
Based on the use of a mirror layer in external wall panels, the style of “mirror” architecture emerged in the 80s. This style has become especially fashionable in the USA.
Rice. 2.1. Fragments of support units for external walls on the floors of frame-panel buildings (a) and various planning options
junctions of external walls with columns and placement of loggias (b)
Design and calculation of multi-storey civil buildings and their elements.
According to the perception of loads they are divided into:- carriers
- non-load-bearing.
- wooden from logs, beams, wooden frame
- brick made of solid and hollow clay
- ceramic and silicate bricks and blocks
- stone made of cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.,
- lightweight concrete made of gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, slag concrete, argolite, sawdust concrete
- soil concrete made of adobe, compacted soil.
- chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams,
- small block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg.,
- panel or panel from ready-made wall elements one floor high,
- framed from racks and frames covered with sheet or molded materials,
- monolithic from concrete and soil,
- composite or multilayer using various materials and designs.
WHAT TO BUILD WALLS FROM?
In the construction of dachas and cottages, the following materials are most often used for walls: brick, lightweight concrete (foam concrete, expanded clay concrete, etc.), wood (timber, logs) and wood with insulation (frame walls). For the construction of frame walls, it is undeservedly rarely used relatively new material- cement particle boards (CSB). Let's consider their advantages, disadvantages and construction costs (prices as of April 01, will increase by summer).When choosing wall material, the following considerations must be taken into account.
1."Rule of homogeneity" - all main walls (external and those internal on which the ceiling rests) must be built from the same material and rest on the same foundation. A combination of brick and lightweight concrete, as well as DSP and wood when cladding frame walls is acceptable.
2.Distances between main walls(supports for wooden floor beams) should not exceed 4 m. With reinforced concrete floors (for brick walls) this distance can be increased to 7 m.
3. Materials for the construction of walls and their design solutions are selected taking into account local climatic conditions, economics, the specified strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of the facades.
BRICK.
Advantages.
Brick walls are very durable, fire-resistant, not susceptible (unlike wooden ones) to insects - pests and rotting, and therefore durable. They allow the use of reinforced concrete floor slabs. This is necessary if you want to arrange a living space above the garage or a room very big size. The small size of the bricks allows them to be used to build walls of complex configurations and lay out decorative elements of the facade. Due to the fire resistance of brick, walls made of it can be adjacent to stoves and fireplaces; smoke and ventilation ducts can be laid inside brick walls. Brick walls have a high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia - in summer they are cool in any heat, in winter they are warm for a long time even after the heating is turned off.
Flaws.
Brick walls have high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia, as well as relatively high thermal conductivity. Therefore, if in winter the house has not been heated for at least two weeks, warm it up until comfortable conditions it will take several days. Brick readily absorbs moisture. Because of this, during seasonal operation, the first weeks in brick house damp. The bricks, which have collected moisture from the atmosphere during the fall, freeze in the winter, this leads (during seasonal use) to rapid destruction - in 25 years the walls will require serious repairs. Brick walls are very heavy and do not tolerate deformation, so they require a strip foundation to the full freezing depth. To ensure proper thermal insulation, brick walls must be very thick (in the Moscow region - 52 cm). In a house with a usable area of 50 sq. m they will occupy "17 sq. m - 1/3 of the area; for a house with an area of 200 sq. m this ratio will be 1/6. After the completion of the laying of the walls, a year must pass before they can be finished; the walls must "settle" before the start of finishing.
Conclusion.
It is advisable to use brick only during construction large cottages(several floors, floor area more than 200 sq. m.), intended for year-round use.
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Advantages.
The walls are made of lightweight concrete, fireproof, not susceptible (unlike wooden ones) to insects - pests and rotting, and therefore durable. The relatively small size of the blocks and the ease of their processing make it possible to build walls of complex configurations from them. Due to the fire resistance of concrete, walls made of it can be adjacent to stoves, fireplaces and smoke ducts. Concrete walls They have a large heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia - in summer they are cool in any heat, in winter they are warm for a long time even after the heating is turned off. Foam concrete walls, in comparison with brick walls, have lower heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia, as well as relatively low thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house is not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions within a day. The thickness of foam concrete walls can be half that of brick walls. Lining the outside of foam concrete walls with decorative bricks does not increase their weight by much, but it strengthens the walls and relieves you of worries about finishing. Laying walls from blocks is much simpler and cheaper than brickwork.
Flaws.
Foam concrete readily absorbs moisture. The blocks that have collected moisture from the atmosphere during the fall freeze in the winter, this leads (during seasonal use) to rapid destruction - after 25 years the walls will require serious repairs (this does not apply to expanded clay concrete, it is hydrophobic). Walls made of lightweight concrete do not tolerate deformation, so they require a strip foundation or a slab foundation. After completing the laying of the walls, a year must pass before finishing them; the walls must “settle” before finishing begins. Cracks may form on walls made of foam concrete during settlement.
Conclusion.
Lightweight concrete occupies an intermediate position between brick and wood, and the higher its specific gravity, the closer its properties are to those of brick. It is advisable to use it in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and summer cottages intended for year-round use.
SIMPLE BEAM.
Advantages.
Timber walls have low thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house is not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a few hours. For timber walls A thickness of 15 cm is sufficient. Wooden walls create a healthy microclimate in the house; they remove excess moisture from the room. Timber walls are relatively light and resistant to deformation. They can be built on a columnar or floating column foundation. Wooden walls can withstand an unlimited number of freeze-thaw cycles, and therefore their service life can exceed 100 years.
Flaws.
Walls made of wood are highly flammable and susceptible to insect pests and rot, and therefore require special treatment and structural protection from moisture and fire. After finishing the felling wooden walls a year must pass before finishing begins; the walls must “settle” before finishing begins, and the settlement (up to 10%) is significantly greater than that of stone or frame walls (3 - 1%). The timber becomes deformed when drying. Caulking timber walls is a complex and expensive procedure. To minimize the consequences of these troubles (deformation and poor caulking), timber walls, outside and inside, have to be sheathed with clapboard or DSP.
Conclusion.
It is advisable to use wood in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and dachas intended for seasonal or year-round use.
PROFILED BEAM, SIMPLE AND CYLINDED LOG.
Advantages.
The same as for timber walls. Walls made of simple log more durable.
Flaws.
The same as for timber walls. In addition, walls made of these materials require careful and beautiful caulking.
Conclusion.
It is advisable to use such wood in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and dachas intended for seasonal or year-round use, when purely aesthetic considerations come first.
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Frame walls with “double” thermal insulation made of lightweight materials (foam plastic, mineral wool, etc.) have the lowest thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house is not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a few hours. For frame walls, a thickness of 15 cm is sufficient. Frame walls are the lightest of all those considered and are resistant to deformation. They can be built on a columnar or floating column foundation. Frame walls can withstand an unlimited number of freeze-thaw cycles. DSP cladding provides protection (though not absolute) from fire and moisture. In frame houses, the most free layout of interior spaces is possible. The cost of money, effort and time for the construction of frame walls is minimal. There is no need to wait for precipitation before finishing. With well-organized work, you can move into a frame house a month after the start of construction.
Flaws.
Walls made of wood are highly flammable and susceptible to insect pests and rot, and therefore require special treatment and structural protection from moisture and fire. Lining, the main material for cladding frame walls, dries out quickly (within 1-2 years), cracks appear on the wall (if the work is done correctly, not through). It is believed that the service life frame houses does not exceed 30 years, but the use of modern materials can significantly increase it. Increasing the size of the house (L walls > 9 m, height - > 2 floors) leads to a significant complication of the frame and a decrease in reliability. The use of siding for cladding is unacceptable, since it “does not breathe” - it does not allow water vapor to pass through.
Conclusion.
It is advisable to use frame walls in the construction of summer cottages intended for seasonal or year-round use.
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Logging for log and cobblestone walls, it is advisable to perform it in winter, when the wood is less susceptible to drying out, rotting and warping. They cut down for the walls coniferous trees having a straight trunk with a slope of no more than 1 cm per 1 m of length. The diameter of the logs is chosen to be the same as possible, with a difference between the upper and lower cuts of no more than 3 cm. The thickness (diameter) of the logs is determined by the width of the longitudinal groove required by climatic conditions. At a design temperature of outside air of - 20 0C it should be at least 10 cm, at - 300C - at least 12 cm, at - 400C - about 14-16 cm. The width of the groove is approximately 2/3 of the diameter of the log. The length of the logs is determined in accordance with the dimensions and layout of the house, taking into account the necessary allowance when cutting the log house with the remainder (into the “cup”). When cutting walls, freshly cut logs with an average humidity of 80-90% are used. They are easier to process and are less deformed when natural drying V assembled form. When humidity decreases to 15% ( operating humidity in conditions middle zone countries), the wood dries out and the dimensions of the logs decrease in the longitudinal direction by about 0.1, in the transverse direction - by 3-6%.
Cutting log walls usually performed near the installation site, laying the logs “dry” without tow. After the felling is completed, the walls must “stand” in assembled form (over 6-9 months, the moisture content of the wood decreases by 3-5 times), then the logs are marked, the log house is rolled out and assembled on tow, on previously prepared foundations. During drying and operation, chopped walls shrink significantly, reaching 1:20-1:30 of the original height of the log house, so a gap (depending on the moisture content of the logs) of 6-10 cm is left above the window and door frames. The seams between the logs are caulked 2 times : the first time rough after the construction of the house, the second - after 1-1.5 years - after the final settlement of the walls.
The cutting down of the walls begins from laying the first (flat) crown of thicker logs, hewn into two edges: one on the bottom side, the second on the inside. Since the logs in the longitudinal and transverse walls are offset relative to each other by half their height, the first crown on two opposite walls is laid either on support beams or plates, or on an uneven-high plinth. For better organization drain (with a protruding base), antiseptic boards are placed under the first crown along the waterproofing layer, to which galvanized roofing steel is attached. The width of the lower edge of the frame crown is at least 15 cm. Each subsequent crown of the log house is connected to the previous one through a semicircular groove selected from the underside of each log. To give the walls stability, the crowns are connected to each other by vertical insert tenons of a rectangular (6x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) section with a height of 10-12 cm, placing them in each row in a checkerboard pattern every 1-1.5 m along the length of the log house; in the walls it is necessary to have at least two spikes at a distance of 15-20 cm from the edges. The height of the holes for the spikes should have a reserve for draft, i.e. be 1.5-2 cm greater than the height of the spikes. The logs in the log house are placed alternately with their butts in different directions to maintain the overall horizontalness of the rows. In the corners, logs are connected in two ways: with the remainder (into the “cup”) and without the remainder (into the “paw”). The intersection of external walls with internal walls is also carried out in a “cup” or “paw”. When cutting into a “cup”, due to the corner residues, about 0.5 m is lost on each log. In addition, the protruding ends of the logs interfere with subsequent lining or external cladding walls Paw cutting is more economical, but requires more highly skilled and careful work.
Walls made of beams are erected with less labor costs, and does not require highly qualified specialists. An individual developer, having ready-made beams, can do this work independently. Unlike log walls, beam walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations. If the base of the house is sinking, then the drain is not done and the first crown is laid over a waterproofing layer with an outer overhang above the base of 3-4 cm. The corners of the first crown are connected into half a tree, the rest are either on main tenons or dowels.
Corner connection of beams"butt-to-end" is fragile and creates vertical cracks that are blown through.
A more technologically advanced connection is made on root tenons: the wood for the tenon and socket is cut across the grain, and the cleaving is done along it. In addition, with this connection, the tenon socket is located further from the edge of the beam. To prevent horizontal shifts, the beams are connected to each other by vertical dowels (dowels) with a diameter of about 30 mm and a height of 20-25 cm. Holes for the dowels are drilled after placing the beam on the tow to a depth equal to approximately one and a half height of the beam, 2-4 cm more, than the length of the dowel.
Cobblestone walls, unlike log walls, have flat horizontal seams and therefore rain moisture penetrates into the room through them. To reduce the water permeability of the seams, each beam has outside a chamfer 20-30 mm wide is removed (shaved) along the upper edge, and the outer seams themselves are carefully caulked and covered with drying oil, oil paint and so on. The most effective protection of paving walls from atmospheric influences is covering them with boards or facing them with bricks. This allows you not only to protect the walls from exposure to external moisture and reduce airflow, but also to make them “warmer”, and with brick cladding, more fire-resistant.
To prevent biological destruction of wood, a ventilation gap 4-6 cm wide is created between the plank sheathing and the wall. If additional insulation of the walls of the house is necessary, this gap is widened and filled with mineral wool. In this case, the insulation should be left open at the top and bottom. It is better to make plank cladding horizontal - this makes it easier to install insulation and creates more favorable conditions for vertical ventilation internal space. The brick cladding is also installed with a gap of 5-7 cm from the wall. To ventilate the internal space (including those filled with insulation), vents are left at the top and bottom of the brick cladding. The brick cladding is laid out either in half a brick or with modular bricks having a thickness of 88 mm, “on edge” and secured to beams or logs with metal clamps placed every 30-40 cm in height and every 1-1.5 m along the front checkerboard walls.
Clamps are a double-bent strip of galvanized roofing steel, 3-5 cm wide and 15-20 cm long. One side of it is attached with a bent end to a beam or log (preferably with a screw), the other is embedded in the brickwork with the end bent 900 along the cladding. Sheathing and cladding of cobblestone and log walls is carried out after they have completely settled, i.e. no earlier than 1-1.5 years after construction.
WOODEN FRAME WALLS
Frame walls are considered the most easy option for the construction of a country house, since at a relatively low cost of wood they can be no less warm and low-acoustic than felled ones log walls.
The frame, as a rule, consists of lower and upper wall frames, stiffening struts, as well as auxiliary elements such as intermediate posts and crossbars, between which door and window frames.
After assembling the frame with outside it is sheathed with boards about 20 mm thick. Instead, you can use other durable and weather-resistant materials, such as asbestos-cement boards.
The following method is used to insulate walls. The boards are laid in two layers, leaving space between them, which must be filled either with rolled materials (roofing felt, roofing felt), or with slab or bulk materials. Slab and roll materials are attached to the wall with nails. The resulting seams are covered with gypsum solution or caulked with tow. When laying slabs in two layers, the seams between the slabs of the first layer must be overlapped by the slabs of the second layer.
To prevent moist air from penetrating between the layers of boards, an insulating layer of roofing felt is placed on the inside of the wall under the sheathing, which is mixed with lime before use. It will reliably protect your house from rodents.
In addition to lime, slag, pumice, sawdust, moss, peat, sunflower husks, and straw can be used as backfill. The lighter the material, the lower its thermal conductivity. Before use, it must be thoroughly dried and antiseptic. And only after this treatment, mix, lay in layers and compact.
But despite the fact that dry backfills have a number of advantages (relative cheapness, accessibility, protection from rodents), they are characterized by one drawback, namely, they cause settlement of the house with the subsequent formation of unwanted voids, which cannot be attributed to the advantages. To prevent this, it is necessary to raise the walls 300 mm above the ceiling beams and fill them with backfill; Gradually settling, it will fill the voids. It is better to use slab materials under the windows, and if this is not possible, then we recommend that you install retractable window sills and add backfill through them.
Due to the fact that the backfill for the most part is considered a light and granular material and, as we have already noted, gives sediment, materials are added to it that turn it into solid aggregate. Perhaps one of the most commonly used materials is considered to be lime and gypsum (80% sawdust contains 5% gypsum).
Some builders resort to moistened backfills. When preparing them, you must strictly observe a certain ratio of materials, which are best taken by weight. So, for example, for 1 part of organic filler take 0.5 parts of gypsum and 2 parts of water. It is prepared as follows: layers of organic fillers and a binder are poured onto the striker, mixed thoroughly and moistened with water. All this dries out in 2-3 weeks. Many builders make the mistake of using thermal insulation materials (roof felt, roofing felt) when making moistened backfill. Under no circumstances should this be done, as such materials can subsequently cause fungus that is dangerous to the wood.
The most effective heat-insulating material is slabs made of organic materials, 50x50 in size, 5 to 15 cm thick. To make them, take 4 parts clay dough, 0.3 parts quicklime, 2 parts water. In the absence of lime, you can use cement (0.3 parts to 2 parts water). All components are mixed; If they are dry, they must be moistened with water. Everything is thoroughly mixed again until homogeneous, placed in molds, compacted and dried under a canopy or indoors. Drying time depends on the binder. If you used gypsum or lime, then the drying time will be limited to two to three weeks, and if you used clay, you will have to wait three to four weeks.
BRICK WALLS.
Various types of bricks are used for laying the walls of residential buildings. In order to save materials, it is not recommended to use ordinary solid bricks for continuous masonry. It is better to lay solid walls from light and hollow bricks, using two-row and multi-row ligation systems. When dressing masonry in two rows, the front rows of pokes alternate with rows of spoons and for dressing it is required significant amount halves and three-quarters of bricks. The masonry in a multi-row dressing consists of spoon rows, overlapped every fifth row (in height) by a bonded row. The thickness of horizontal and vertical mortar joints should be no more than 10-12 mm. Examples of masonry walls and their details (corners, pillars, partitions, as well as wall junctions) are shown in the figure.
When laying, the mortar is applied to the wall from a box (with low sides) with a shovel and spread in the form of a convex bed. The brick must first be laid out on the wall for spoon rows in stacks of 2 bricks flat, with the long side along the wall, and for bonded rows with the long side across the wall. The masonry is carried out, observing strict horizontal and vertical rows, ensuring the correctness of the front surfaces of the walls. For better adhesion of the mortar to the brick, especially when laying in hot weather, it is recommended to moisten the brick with water before laying. This recommendation applies to all types of brickwork. If the walls will be plastered in the future, then the masonry should be hollowed out, that is, without filling the seams at the surface of the wall to be plastered with mortar. With this method, the plaster adheres more firmly to the wall surface. For laying massive stone walls, cold mortars are used, and for thin walls that require increased thermal qualities, warm plastic mortars are used. In warm solutions, sand is replaced with ground fuel or blast furnace slag, ash, ground tuff, pumice, etc. If the substitute is well ground, then sand is not added, but if the substitute contains some large impurities, then sand is added in small quantities. When plastered externally, a wall using such solutions acquires better heat-insulating qualities.
To install door and window frames, openings with cut quarters are left in the masonry. The openings are covered with prefabricated reinforced concrete, ordinary brick or wedge lintels. When installing ordinary lintels at the level of the top of the opening, formwork is installed from boards 40-50 mm thick, on which the mortar is spread in a layer of up to 2 cm and reinforcement is laid (stack steel, round 4-6 mm steel) at the rate of 1 rod per 1/2 brick wall thickness. The ends of the reinforcement should extend 25 cm into the walls. Wedge lintels are also installed on pre-laid formwork, laying bricks on edge from the edges to the middle of the lintel and sloping at the edges to form a spacer (wedge). It is allowed to install lintels made of tarred boards 5-6 cm thick, the ends of which should be buried 15-25 cm into the walls.
PARTITIONS.
Partitions must be soundproof, nailable, durable, and stable. Partitions are installed on the floor structure before flooring is laid. In places where partitions made of combustible materials adjoin stoves and chimneys, brick cuts should be arranged along the entire height so that the distance from the partition to the inner surface of the stove or chimney is at least 40 cm.
FRAME.
The frame of the partitions consists of posts 5-6 cm thick and 9-10 cm wide with spikes at the ends, top and lower harness of the same section with sockets for the tenons of the racks. The racks are placed at a distance of 0.75-1.2 m from one another, with a spike in the socket of the straps, and fastened with nails. To form a doorway, frame posts are installed with a crossbar (lintel) embedded on top. The door frame is nailed to the framing posts. The frame is sheathed horizontally on both sides with boards 1.9-2.5 cm thick. Boards more than 12 cm wide are split with an ax so that they do not warp when plastered. The voids between the two skins are filled with fine sifted dry slag to increase soundproofing and reduce fire hazard. In some cases, the frame of the interior partition can be covered with fiberboards and plywood sheets without any filling. However, such partitions, being very light and simple in design, have high sound conductivity.
GYPSUM PARTITIONS.
Partitions made of gypsum slabs are laid before the finished floor is installed on boards with blocks nailed along the edges to form a gutter that prevents the slabs from moving to the sides. The laying of the slabs begins with filling the trench in the tray with gypsum mortar. The first row of slabs is immersed in the solution with the groove facing up. The vertical seams between the slabs are filled with mortar. Before installing the next row of slabs, fill the groove of the first row with mortar, etc. The partition is not brought up to the ceiling by 1-2 cm in order to be able to thoroughly caulk and seal the gap with mortar. High doorways are protected by posts that rest against the ceilings. For low openings, door frames are installed before the partition. The lintel is carried out by simply overlapping the slabs (with an opening width of less than 1 m) or laying two reinforcement bars filled with gypsum mortar. To protect gypsum boards from moisture, if the partition is supported on concrete base floor of the first floor, 2 rows of brickwork are laid under the partition over a layer of roofing felt or roofing felt. After laying, the gypsum partition is plastered or rubbed.
BRICK PARTITIONS.
Brick partitions are laid with a thickness of 1/2 brick (12 cm). The basis for partitions can be concrete preparation under ground floor floors or reinforced concrete floors. By wooden floors Brick partitions should not be made due to their significant weight. The masonry is carried out by tying vertical seams. The surfaces are plastered on both sides. Adjacency brick partitions to walls and ceilings is carried out in the same way as with gypsum partitions. Jumpers are placed over the doorways, resting them on 2 reinforcement bars in cement mortar.