First person: Philosopher. What is the role of a philosopher in the modern world? The role of philosophy in the modern world

(instead of conclusion)

As we already know, philosophy is a form of spiritual activity aimed at posing, analyzing and solving fundamental ideological issues related to the development of a holistic view of the world and man. These include problems such as understanding the uniqueness of man and his place in the universal integral existence, the meaning and purpose of human life, the relationship between being and consciousness, subject and object, freedom and determinism, and many others. Accordingly, the main content and structure of philosophy and its functions are determined. Moreover, the internal structure of philosophical knowledge itself is very complexly organized, simultaneously holistic and internally differentiated. There is, on the one hand, a certain theoretical core, consisting of the doctrine of being (ontology), the theory of knowledge (epistemology), the doctrine of man (philosophical anthropology) and the doctrine of society (social philosophy). On the other hand, around this theoretically systematized foundation, a whole complex of specialized branches or branches of philosophical knowledge was formed quite a long time ago: ethics, aesthetics, logic, philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, philosophy of law, political philosophy, philosophy of ideology, etc. Taken in the interaction of all these structure-forming components, philosophy performs a wide variety of functions in the life of man and society. The most important of them include: ideological, methodological, value-regulatory and prognostic.

In the course of almost three thousand years of development of philosophical thought, the idea of the subject of philosophy, its basic content and internal structure was constantly not only clarified and specified, but often significantly changed. The latter occurred, as a rule, during periods of dramatic social change. It is precisely this period of radical qualitative transformations that modern humanity is experiencing. Therefore, the question naturally arises: how and in what direction will the idea of the subject, the main content and purpose of philosophy change in that new, as it is most often called, post-industrial, or information, society? The answer to this question remains open today. It can only be given in a general and preliminary form, which does not in any way pretend to be categorical or unambiguous, but at the same time it is a fairly clear answer. We are talking about highlighting the problems of man, language in its generalized modern understanding, the foundations and universals of culture. All of these are different attempts to discover new aspects of human experience in philosophy, making it possible to better understand both the own content of philosophy and its purpose in society. It seems that this trend is stable and dominant, determining the general perspective and specific directions for the development of philosophy for decades to come.

Apparently, philosophy, as before, will be understood as a specific form of human spiritual activity, focused on solving fundamental ideological problems. It will continue to be based on the study of the deep foundations of human activity, and above all, productive creative activity, taken in all the diversity of its types and forms, as well as the study of the nature and functions of language in its modern generalized understanding. In particular, it is necessary to understand much deeper and more thoroughly the features of that specific type of reality, which is the so-called virtual reality, which exists and is expressed by means of modern electronic technologies, including using the World Electronic Web (the Internet and its analogues).

Finally, we will suggest that in the near future there will be an intensification of the tendency for philosophy to acquire its status as a kind of body of practical wisdom. During its formation and initial stages, European philosophy had this status, but then lost it, concentrating efforts on creating very complex, relatively complete systems, mainly using purely theoretical, logical means and methods. As a result, she largely abstracted herself from the real demands and needs of a specific living person. Philosophy, apparently, will try to once again become - of course, taking into account all the realities of our time - necessary for a person to understand and solve problems that arise in the course of his daily life.

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Sevastyanov Mikhail Alexandrovich
Philosophy. Lecture notes. Textbook.-M.: NOU MELI 2009. The textbook reveals the main worldview problems of philosophical science. Study guide in Krasnoyarsk

About ways, methods, techniques of cognition and transformation of both natural and social reality
2. Ideals as the ultimate goal of aspirations and activities, perfection, example. 3. Values – importance, necessity, significance of something in the range from universal to individual. Prices

Levels of worldview
1. Ordinary This is a worldview that is formed spontaneously on the basis of the experience and knowledge of people obtained as a result of their daily life activities. Everyday worldview incl.

Historical types of worldview
1. Mythological worldview. 2. Religious worldview. 3. Philosophical worldview. Mythological worldview is a system of views

Main questions
1. Philosophy as a special type of knowledge and type of worldview. 2. Subject, structure and functions of modern philosophy. Literature Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook

The Basic Question of Philosophy
“The great fundamental question of all, especially modern philosophy, is the question of the relationship of thinking to being” (F. Engels.) The main question of philosophy:

Specificity (feature) of philosophical knowledge
1. This is knowledge about the essences and patterns of everything that exists. 2. This is knowledge of a general and universal nature. 3. The desire to explain the world, philosophical problems support

Historical development of the idea of the subject of philosophy
Pythagoras - “love of wisdom.” Socrates is a means of knowing good and evil. Plato is a special science aimed at understanding the eternal true existence. Aristotle

Social functions of philosophy
The function of philosophy is the role, purpose that philosophy performs in relation to the needs of society and man. 1. Worldview. 2. Having known

Questions for self-control
1. What is philosophy? 2. What problems does philosophy begin with? 3. What characterizes the philosophical worldview? 4. What is the specificity of philosophical

Historical types of philosophy
Study questions: 1. Ancient philosophy: A. Philosophy of Ancient India and China B. Philosophy of Ancient Greece. 2. Philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Philosophical schools of ancient India
Orthodox (astika) Recognized the authority of the Vedas and shared the beliefs of their authors Sankhya (Kapila) Yoga (Patanjali) Vedanta (Badarayana)

Buddhism and its main ideas
Buddhism is a religious and philosophical teaching that has spread to India, China, and the countries of Southeast Asia. The founder of the teaching is Gautama Buddha. 1. The main idea of Buddhism is the “Middle Way”

Four Noble Truths of Buddhism
The path to achieving Nirvana is associated with the assimilation of the “four noble truths”: · Earthly life is full of suffering. · The cause of suffering is desires (thirst for profit, fame, pleasure, etc.)

Some important concepts of ancient Chinese philosophy
· Tao – universal cosmic law; the natural course of things; The Absolute as the highest state of being; the beginning and end of all things; symbol of the highest cosmic harmony. · De

Vision of the world and surrounding reality from the perspective of the most ancient Chinese national schools
· Perception of China as the center of the existing world. · Awareness of one’s responsibility before Heaven and Earth for the correct implementation of cosmic cycles on Earth. · Fusion separately

Taoism
Taoism is the oldest philosophical doctrine of China, which tries to explain the foundations of the construction and existence of the surrounding world and find the path that people, nature

Basic ideas of Taoism
· Everything in the world is interconnected, there is not a single thing, not a single phenomenon that is not interconnected with other things and phenomena. · The matter of which the world consists is one; there is a circle

Qualities that a leader (boss) should have
· Obey the emperor and follow Confucian principles. ·Govern on the basis of virtue. · Have the necessary knowledge. · Serve the country faithfully and be a patriot.

Aphorisms of Confucius
· A noble husband is serene in his soul. A low person is always preoccupied. · A noble man blames himself, a low man blames others. · A noble husband thinks about morality, duty and how to

Ancient Greek philosophy
Ancient Greek is a philosophy (teachings, schools) developed by Greek philosophers living on the territory of modern Greece, as well as in Greek city-states (trade and crafts

Pre-Socratic schools of Ancient Greece
1. Milesian school of “physicists” (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes). 2. Pythagorean school. 3. School of Heraclitus of Ephesus. 4. Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus of Samos).

Aphorisms of Pythagoras
Take care of the tears of your children so that they can shed them at your grave. Be a friend of truth to the point of martyrdom, but do not be its defender to the point of intolerance.

Philosophers of the Milesian school
1. acted from a spontaneously materialistic position; 2. studied exact and natural sciences along with philosophy; 3. tried to explain the laws of nature (for which they got their

Anaximander (610 -540 BC)
Student of Thales, naturalist, geographer and natural philosopher. · He considered the origin of all things to be “apeiron” - an endless, indefinite material origin. · Gave the first character

Anaximenes (546-526 BC)
Student of Anaximander. · He considered air to be the origin of all things: all things represent its products, being formed by its condensation or rarefaction. · Other changes

Atomists
The materialist philosophical school (Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus, Titus Lucretius Carus) considered microscopic particles - the “atom” - to be the “building material”, the “first brick” of everything that exists

Sophists
Philosophical school that existed in 5 - per. floors 4th century BC (Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, Critias). “Sophists” are sages, teachers of wisdom. They acted as philosopher-educators who taught

Protagoras (5th century BC)
The main credo of Protagoras: “man is the measure of all things that exist, that they exist, and non-existent, that they do not exist” · The criterion for assessing the surrounding reality, good

Basic philosophical ideas of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
Socrates (469-399 BC) – polemicist, sage, philosopher-teacher. · He carried out his educational activities in the midst of the people, in squares, markets in the form of open conversation, dialogue,

Aphorisms of Socrates
Marriage, to tell the truth, is evil, but a necessary evil. The sculptor must express spiritual activity in appearance. All knowledge separated from justice and other virtues,

Plato's philosophy
Plato (427-347 BC) - student of Socrates, founder of his own philosophical school - the Academy, creator of the system objective idealism. The most important works of Plato: "Apology of Socrates", "

Aristotle's philosophy
Aristotle (384-322 BC) – student of Plato, founder of the Lyceum School of Athens, teacher of Alexander the Great. The father of many sciences, such as psychology, logic, biology, aesthetics, etc.

Aristotle's basic philosophical ideas
1. There are no “pure ideas”, eidos not related to the surrounding reality. They are a reflection of things and objects of the real world; 2. there are only isolated and specific

Aphorisms of Aristotle
To be free means to have equal rights to justice. To be brave means: to consider everything that is scary as distant and everything that inspires courage as close. Internal strife

Aristippus of Cyrene (430 - 355 BC)
In order to live properly, you must have either a mind or a loop. It is necessary either not to approach the kings at all, or to tell them only what pleases them. Wise men do not know how to talk

Aphorisms of Cicero
There is nothing more contrary to reason and nature than chance. The difficulties that bring glory are endured with ease. I hate a wise man who is not wise to himself. We must

Philosophy of the Middle Ages
Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of the era of feudalism in Europe in the 5th-15th centuries. · The beginning of medieval philosophy was marked by the union of philosophy and theology, and its completion by the collapse of this

Fundamental tenets of medieval philosophy
Dogma of Creation. According to the dogma of creation: God created the world out of nothing; · The creation of the world is the result of an act of Divine will;

Patristics and scholasticism
Patristics is a set of philosophical and theological teachings of Christian thinkers of the 2nd-8th centuries, whose main goal was protection and theoretical justification x

The most important problems of scholastic philosophy
· Rational proof of the existence of God; · Creationism; · Relationship between faith and reason; · Free will and theodicy; · Providentialism; · Bo

Aphorisms of Augustine Aurelius
Time heals wounds The will in us is always free, but not always good Believe in order to understand If there is no evil, then the very fear of it is evil Who hates the world? Those who

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
· Dominican monk, major theological medieval philosopher, systematizer of scholasticism, author of Thomism, a direction of the Catholic Church. Developer of the foundations of Catholicism.

Aphorisms of Thomas Aquinas
A person has freedom of choice, because otherwise advice, admonitions, edifications, rewards and punishments would be useless. Historical significance of medieval theology

Philosophy of the Renaissance (Renaissance)
This is a special stage in the history of philosophy, characterized by the approval new form philosophizing, built on principles independent of philosophical scholasticism. Per

Aphorisms of Dante Alighieri
Follow your path and let people say whatever they want. The hottest places in hell are reserved for those who, during times of great moral crisis, maintained neutrality France.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
The main provisions of the picture of the world proposed by the natural scientist: · The Earth is not the center of the Universe (geocentrism was rejected); The sun is the center, the earth revolves around

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
In practice, he confirmed the correctness of the ideas of Nicolaus Copernicus and Giordano Bruno: · Invented the telescope; · Explored celestial bodies using a telescope; · Proved that heavenly t

Political philosophy Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
The main work "The Prince". · Man has an inherently evil nature; · The driving motives of human actions are selfishness and the desire for personal gain

Glossary of basic terms
· Revival (or Renaissance) is a term denoting the transitional era from the Middle Ages to the New Age. The chronological boundaries of the Renaissance are 14th – 16th (17th) centuries. ·

Philosophy of the New Age 16-17 centuries
Features of the era: · The beginning of the first bourgeois revolutions(in the Netherlands and England) and the establishment of capitalist industrial development; · Weakening the influence of cer

Dualism of R. Descartes
· Man is the only creature in which both (material and spiritual) substances combine and exist, and this allowed him to rise above nature; Based on the fact that people

The doctrine of R. Descartes about substance
To characterize the essence of being, R. Descartes introduces the concept of substance. · Substance is everything that exists, not needing anything for its existence except the substance itself.

The doctrine of R. Descartes about innate ideas
· The essence of this theory is that the spiritual substance has innate ideas. This is a special kind of knowledge that does not need proof. These truths (axioms) are initially obvious and reliable.

Basic philosophical ideas of Francis Bacon
· Philosophy must be, first of all, practical in nature; where it remains speculative (scholasticism), it is untrue. · The essence of the main philosophical idea of F. Bacon for

F. Bacon's teaching on the method of knowledge
· Bacon put forward induction as the main method of knowledge. The philosopher develops this method in his main work “New Organon”. "Organon" - in trans. from Greek – means instrument, instrument, means

Phantoms of the theater
· “Ghosts of the race” are errors arising from the fact that a person judges nature by analogy with the lives of people; · “Ghosts of the Cave” - consist of mistakes of individual character

Aphorisms of F. Bacon
Laws are like a web: small insects they become entangled. There is no greater harm to a power than to mistake cunning for wisdom. What is the most important thing in government affairs? - Smelos

Aphorisms of E. Rotterdamsky
Only fools are given the ability to speak the truth without offending anyone. Most people are stupid, and everyone fools around in their own way. Starting a war is easy, but ending it is difficult.

Philosophy of I. Kant (1724-1804)
· I. Kant is considered the founder of German classical philosophy. The work of Immanuel Kant can be divided into two large periods: (1) pre-critical - until the early 70s of the 18th century; (

Philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831)
Hegel put forward and developed: · The theory of objective idealism (the core concept of which is the Absolute Idea, the World Spirit); · Diale

Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1770-1831). German philosopher
The great man condemns people to explain him.

German philosopher who developed the concept of anthropological materialism
Main philosophical works: · “The Essence of Christianity”; · “Basic principles of the philosophy of the future”; · “Lectures on s

Disadvantages of L. Feuerbach's philosophy
· His criticism of Hegel was one-sided: by denying idealism, he underestimated Hegelian dialectics; · Excessive exaggeration of the “natural” side in a person and underestimation of the social

Feuerbach Ludwig Andrews (1804-1872). German philosopher
To know a person, you need to love him. Where is morality established?

In politics, for the sake of a certain goal, you can enter into an alliance even with the devil himself; you just need to be sure that you will draw the line, and not the line you
All great world-historical events and personalities appear twice: once in the form of a tragedy, the second time in the form of a farce. All types of savings in society ultimately come down to economics.

Humanity needs to cheerfully part with its past
Circumstances create people to the same extent that people create circumstances. Revolutions are the locomotives of history. Theory becomes a material force as soon as it captures the masses

LENIN Vladimir Ilyich (Ulyanov) (1870-1924). Russian politician
The whole art of government and politics consists in knowing where to concentrate your

Aphorisms of La Rochefoucauld
The mind sometimes serves us to boldly do stupid things. The joys and misfortunes we experience do not depend on the size of the incident, but on our sensitivity.

Main features of Russian philosophy
· Our summary does not aim to examine in detail this or that national philosophy. This corresponds to the fact that in mathematics textbooks it is not German or French mathematics that is considered

BERDYAEV Nikolai Alexandrovich (1784-1948). Russian philosopher
· PHILOSOPHY OF N.A. BERDYAEV: MAN IS REVELATION, FREEDOM AND CREATIVITY

There is one standard by which freedom can be measured, and that is religious tolerance.
The one who truly loves freedom is the one who affirms it for another. Intolerance, a softened form of fanaticism, is always a narrowing of consciousness, a misunderstanding of the plurality and individuality of life

Philosophy as a creative act has nothing in common with either naturalistic or mathematical knowledge - it is art
The very consciousness of man as the center of the world, concealing within himself the answer to the world and rising above all the things of the world, is a prerequisite for any philosophy, without which one cannot dare to philosophize.

Women are more deceitful than men, lies are self-defense developed by the historical lack of rights of women
The world is not a thought. Peace is passion and passionate emotion. In creative inspiration, depression is overcome, and this is the most important thing. Optimism and pessimism are the same forms of determinism,

War and revolution - judges of people and nations
When the power of the state and nation is declared to be a greater value than a person, then, in principle, war has already been declared, everything has already been prepared for it. The history of mankind is largely

Art frees you from slavery to everyday life
The existence of personality presupposes the existence of supra-personal values. There is no personality of a person if there is no existence higher than him, if there is no higher world to which it must ascend.

From the point of view of public welfare, any lack of rights can be justified
If science turns into philosophy, then philosophy turns into religion. Not only unrequited love is tragic, all love is tragic by its very essence, since it does not know satisfaction.

Revolutionaries worship the future but live in the past
Politeness is a symbolically conditional expression of respect for every person. Good deeds”, which are done not out of love for people and not out of concern for them, but for the salvation of one’s own soul, with

Philosophy of our days
· Modern philosophy represents a single but heterogeneous whole. The student of philosophy must navigate this heterogeneity. It is not enough to know only one philosophical movement, and

Husserl Edmund (1859-1938). German philosopher
A person cannot think (cannot preserve the way of existence of a thinking being)

Gadamer Hans Georg (b. 1910). German philosopher
The meaning of the text always exceeds the author's understanding. Every translation already reveals

There are philosophers who exist to maintain the status quo, and others who exist to transform it from top to bottom.
Ideology is actually one of the tools for forming a herd. One of the very unpleasant phenomena of our time is that only limited people are very confident in the rightness of their

Hating your enemies is easier and more fun than loving your friends
Don’t try to avoid temptations: over time, they themselves will begin to avoid you. No one has yet succeeded in creating a philosophy that is both plausible and internally consistent. Beggars

In a democracy, fools have the right to vote; in a dictatorship, fools have the right to rule.
Freedom of opinion can only exist when the government is confident in its security. The Stoic is not virtuous in order to do good, but does good in order to be virtuous

Wittgenstein Ludwig (1889-1951). Austrian philosopher
The meaning of the world must lie outside of it. Everything in the world is as it is, and everything happens like this

Free will is that actions that will be performed later cannot be known now
· LOGICAL POSITIVISM · If the place of formation of the analytical trend in philosophy can rightfully be considered England (Cambridge), where

Popper Karl Raimund (1902-1994). Austrian philosopher, sociologist
Without democratic control there can be no reason why you should rule

An attempt to create heaven on earth inevitably leads to the creation of hell.
Recognition of historicism necessarily presupposes one form or another of totalitarianism. Whoever wants to control history must control the human mind, conscience, and actions. For this you need

He who teaches that love, not reason, should rule, opens the way for those who are convinced that hatred should rule.
Although history has no purpose, we can impose our purposes on it, and although history has no meaning, we can give it meaning. Human need is the pressing problem of public policy.

Philosophy of existence
Study questions: 1. Being as a philosophical problem. 2. Types and forms of being. Literature: Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook for universities. M.: Gardariki,

Historical understanding of the category of being
The term “being” was introduced into philosophy by the ancient Greek philosopher Parmenides. According to Parmenides, being is that which really is

Concept of being
Being is a philosophical category that serves to designate everything that really exists. These are material phenomena and social processes and creative acts occurring in consciousness.

Forms of motion of matter (according to F. Engels)
· Mechanical; · Physical; · Chemical; · Biological; · Social. Main groups of movement forms:

Ontological structure of being according to G. Hegel
The absolute idea in itself (World Mind = God) Logical stage of development. Absolute idea. Nature as otherness of the Absolute Id

Natural scientific definition of matter
· Matter is an objective reality. · Elements of the structure of matter: - inanimate nature, - living nature, - society (society). · Matter is the whole scoop

Matter and its attributes
· Philosophical definition of matter: “Matter is a philosophical category to designate objective reality, which is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, from

Megaworld (infinite space)
- metagalaxy (part of the Universe accessible to study); - clusters and systems of galaxies; - Galaxies; - star clusters and systems; - planetary systems and stars;

Structure of matter (material existence)
Depending on the main ways of existence of matter, the following are distinguished: · Inanimate nature in unity: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, star systems, galaxies and metagalaxies, substances and

Movement as a way of existence of matter
· Matter exists and manifests itself only in motion; · Movement in relation to matter is change in general. · Properties of movement: - objectivity;

Forms of existence of matter
· Space is a form of existence of matter, which characterizes its extent, structure, arrangement of elements within material objects and objects among themselves. ·

Basic Concepts of Spacetime
· Substantial (Descartes, Epicurus, Newton). - space and time are not interconnected; - space and time are not related to matter and exist on their own

Dictionary
· Being is a philosophical category that serves to designate everything that exists, regardless of whether a person knows about this existence or not. · Reality (from Latin real)

Principles and laws of dialectics
Structure of dialectics: · Principles of dialectics: - principle of development; - the principle of universal connection; - the principle of determinism

The law of unity and struggle of opposites
The law gives an idea of the source and mechanism of development of phenomena of reality and thinking. Allows you to answer the question of why development is taking place. ·

The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes
This law characterizes the mechanism for the formation of qualitatively new phenomena and processes. The law allows us to answer the question of how development occurs, the emergence of something new. &n

Methodological significance of the law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes
· The law points to the need to understand the qualitative certainty of processes and objects, to analyze their similarities and differences. · The law requires an objective and accurate

Law of Negation of Negation
The law of negation of negation answers the question, where is he going development and reveals its direction. · The central category of this law is dialectical negation.

State of initial denial
(initial) state The law of negation of negation shows that development proceeds through a chain of dialectical negations, which ensure the elimination of the old, the affirmation of the new

Dictionary
· Dialectics is a philosophical doctrine about the interconnection and development of all types and forms of being. · Objective dialectics – dialectics of the objective world, is a set of connections and relationships

Consciousness, its origin and essence
Basic philosophical concepts of the origin of consciousness: · Idealistic concept – consciousness exists initially before the appearance of matter and

Reflection
Reflection is the ability of material formations (objects, items) when interacting with each other to change or retain traces of interactions. Forms from

Biological prerequisites and social factors for the emergence of consciousness
· Biological prerequisites: - development of the nervous system and especially the brain; - development of the first signaling system; - change in body structure (upright posture, developed

Structure of consciousness
· Depending on the basic states of consciousness, it is distinguished: - knowledge; - emotional and sensory states; - volitional states; - values;

The essence and structure of social consciousness
· Social consciousness is a set of ideas, theories, concepts, programs, views, norms, traditions, habits, opinions, rumors and other spiritual formations that reflect the social existence of a particular

Dictionary
· Adaptation (from Latin - adaptation) - a type of interaction between an individual or a social group and the environment. · Social adaptation – adaptation of the environment to one’s needs, modification of environments

Theory of knowledge
Epistemology (theory of knowledge) is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge. 5.1 Basic epistemological concepts: ·

Forms of reflective-cognitive connections between
subject and object: · Reflection connections (from object to subject); · Connections of expression (formation in the mind of an image, a sign that has meaning and content based on

Philosophy of society
Social philosophy is a philosophical doctrine about society. 6.1 Main problems of social philosophy: · The essence of society. · Origin

Theories of social development
1. Evolutionary type: · Theory of G. Spencer. · Theory of E. Durkheim. · Theory of F. Tenisse. · Theory of industrial society (R. Aron, W. Rostow).

Material and production (economic) sphere of social life
The material and production (economic) sphere is the life activity of society in the reproduction, storage, distribution, exchange and consumption of material assets, satisfaction

Production method structure
1. Productive forces: · People with their knowledge, skills, and labor skills; Means of production (objects of labor - those objects to which people’s labor is directed

Political and legal sphere of social life
The political and legal sphere of social life is based on social communities’ awareness of their political interests and needs related to the conquest of power and the use of power

Social sphere of society
Social sphere life of society is a necessary subsystem that characterizes the position of people in society from the position of social equality or inequality, justice or injustice. &

The spiritual sphere of social life
The spiritual sphere of society's life is associated with the reproduction of individual and social consciousness, with the satisfaction of the spiritual needs of the subjects of society and the development of the spiritual world of man.

Concept of civil society
Civil society is a human community represented by a network of voluntarily formed non-state structures (unions, organizations, associations, Unions

Philosophy of history
Philosophy of history is a science and branch of philosophy that studies the logic and direction of the natural development of society, the unity and diversity of the historical process,

Linear development concept
Christian tradition development: · The historical process is a single line directed towards the future; · The beginning of history is in the divine creation of the world,

TOYNBEE Arnold Joseph (1889-1975). English historian and sociologist
Society, like space, is not and cannot be anything other than after

The concept of the cycle of history by D. Vico (1668-1744)
Main work: “Foundations of a new science about general nature nations." Main ideas: · Assumed the existence of a divine principle, from which the laws of history supposedly emanate; · IN

VICO Giambattista (1668-1744). Italian philosopher
The legislation of the army, trade and court is based on three vices that lead people along the wrong path - bloodlust, stinginess and ambition. Basics

Formational (spiral) approach to history
Proposed by K. Marx and F. Engels, developed by V.I. Lenin. Main ideas: · All history is considered as a natural process of changing socio-economic conditions

Formational approach to history
Advantages: · Understanding of history as a natural objective process; · In-depth development of economic development mechanisms; · Real

SPENGLER Oswald (1880-1936). German philosopher, historian
Each culture has its own era of prosperity and all fall into the era of ossification of civilization.

Philosophical problems of the future
Futurology is a field of scientific knowledge that covers the prospects of civilizational processes. 8.1 Philosophy solves a number of methodological

Global problems of humanity
· Spiritual crisis; · Threat of world war with the use of weapons of mass destruction; · Depletion of the planet's natural resources; · Uneven socio-political development

Dictionary
Nature is the totality of natural conditions for the existence of human society. Society is a part isolated from nature material world, which represents a historically developing

Glossary of terms throughout the course
The Absolute is a spiritual fundamental principle and at the same time the highest, supreme value. An abstract is something isolated, endowed with independence and embedded, as a general thing, in the subject of research.

Apparently, philosophy, as before, will be understood as a specific form of human spiritual activity, focused on solving fundamental ideological problems. It will continue to be based on the study of the deep foundations of human activity, and above all, productive creative activity, taken in all the diversity of its types and forms, as well as on the study of the nature and functions of language in its modern generalized understanding. In particular, it is necessary to understand much deeper and more thoroughly the features of that specific type of reality, which is the so-called virtual reality, which exists and is expressed by means of modern electronic technologies, including using the World Electronic Web (the Internet and its analogues).

Much still remains unclear in the understanding of those universals of culture that are now brought to the fore in philosophical research. It is necessary, for example, to understand the composition, set of the universals of culture themselves, their relationships with each other and with philosophical universals (categories), to better outline the relationship of the philosophical approach to understanding the nature, foundations and universals of culture with those studies of culture that are carried out in such specialized branches modern scientific knowledge, such as cultural studies, cultural history, sociology and psychology of culture, textual criticism, etc.

Most likely, the differentiation of philosophical knowledge will continue. At the same time, it is important that in philosophy, as in other most advanced branches of special scientific knowledge, the process of differentiation is carried out simultaneously with the integration of philosophical knowledge around its own theoretical core - ontology, epistemology, anthropology and social philosophy. This will allow us to avoid the currently observed dissolution of the content of philosophy in the problems of related disciplines - political science, philosophy and history of science (scientific studies), sociology. Systematic and in-depth historical and philosophical research is called upon to play a particularly important role in the integration of philosophical knowledge. It is in the enormous cognitive potential of the centuries-old history of philosophical thought that one of the most important internal sources of constant growth of that specific type of knowledge, which is philosophy, is contained.

And here the need to assimilate the experience and traditions of not only Western European, but also all world philosophical thought will increasingly come to the fore. First of all, we are talking about the experience and traditions of the development of philosophy in the countries of the East - in China, India, the countries of the Middle East and the Mediterranean, with their emphasis on the spiritual, moral self-improvement of man, the establishment and maintenance of harmonious relationships with nature. The same can be said regarding the experience of the development of Russian philosophical thought, including its religious and philosophical direction. Starting with A. S. Khomyakov, through V. S. Solovyov, a galaxy of outstanding representatives of the Silver Age and up to the middle of the 20th century. Russian philosophical thought has accumulated enormous spiritual wealth, containing the diversity of all human experience, the achievements of human spiritual powers and abilities, the ideas of Russian cosmism, the moral quest of many outstanding representatives of Russian literature and artistic culture in general.

Many of the fundamental ideas put forward in their time by philosophical thought are firmly entrenched in the language and arsenal of methods and tools used in modern scientific knowledge. This applies, for example, to philosophical interpretations of the relationship between part and whole, features of the structure and structure of complexly organized developing systems, the dialectics of the accidental and the necessary, the possible and the actual, the variety of types and forms of regularity and causality. It is especially important that the subject of special scientific research is increasingly becoming the person himself and the characteristics of his consciousness, cognitive and mental activity in the form of a whole complex of so-called cognitive sciences, not to mention special scientific approaches and methods for studying human social life. In general, it can be said with a high degree of probability that the time is not far when research into many problems that are an integral part of the worldview will be carried out through the joint efforts of philosophy and various branches of specialized scientific knowledge, which, in turn, will require certain adjustments to be made in the understanding of the subject and the main content of philosophy.

Among the diverse functions of philosophy, its prognostic function, its active and active participation in foreseeing and forecasting the ideals of the future, a more perfect structure, is becoming increasingly important in modern conditions. human life, in search of new ideological orientations. The consciousness of modern people is becoming more and more planetary and, in this sense, global. But this trend towards deepening the internal integrity and interconnectedness of humanity has not yet been adequately reflected in politics, economics, culture, and ideology. On the contrary, as noted above, the uneven development of states is increasing, and the not always justified differentiation in the distribution of public wealth, material goods, and the social conditions of life of people and nations. To this day, the desire to solve international and domestic problems through the use of force, i.e., using economic, financial, military-technical means, especially its superiority in global information technologies and streams (television, all the various means of video and audio production, cinema, Internet, show business). Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop such models and scenarios for the development of mankind, when the tendency towards increasing unity and integrity of the human community does not contradict the national interests of states, historically formed spiritual and cultural traditions, and the way of life of each people.

A serious threat is posed by problems that worsened in the second half of the 20th century. crisis situations in the development of Western civilization: environmental, anthropological, spiritual and moral. According to many thinkers, politicians, scientists, the very existence of humanity is in question. There is a need for new strategies for relating to nature and man, for a more harmonious combination of all forms of implementation of his creative and transformative activities.

The development of universal human values has become extremely important. Almost all the major thinkers of our time pose and discuss this problem in one way or another, although for the most part they identify and comprehend the difficulties present here, rather than offering specific ways and means of solution. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that one of the most fundamental prerequisites for both posing and understanding this problem and searching for ways and means to solve it lies in the development of dialogue between the philosophical traditions of the West and the East and, more generally, intercultural dialogue, which is vital in a pluralistic civilization.

Finally, let us suggest that in the near future there will be an intensification of the tendency for philosophy to acquire its status as a kind of body of practical wisdom. During its formation and initial stages, European philosophy had this status, but then lost it, concentrating efforts on creating very complex, relatively complete systems, mainly using purely theoretical, logical means and methods. As a result, she largely abstracted herself from the real demands and needs of a specific living person. Philosophy, apparently, will try to once again become - of course, taking into account all the realities of our time - necessary for a person to understand and solve problems that arise in the course of his everyday life.

Euclid. Started. M., 1949. Book. 7–10. P. 9.

Plato. Works: In 3 volumes. M., 1971. T. 3 (1). P. 326.

Aristotle. Works: In 4 vols. M., 1983. T. 4. P. 462.

Augustine. Confession. Kyiv, 1980. P. 210.

History of aesthetics. Monuments of world aesthetic thought. M., 1962. T. 1. P. 507.

Nikolai Kuzansky. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1979. T. I. P. 73.

Bacon F. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1971. T. 1. P. 83.

Descartes R. El. prod. M., 1950. P. 272.

Descartes R. El. prod. P. 428.

Descartes R. El. prod. P. 448.

Hobbes T. El. Prod.: In 2 vols. M., 1965. T. 1. P. 498.

Spinoza B. Fav. Prod.: In 2 vols. M., 1957. T. 1. P. 447.

Kant I. Works: In 8 volumes. M., 1994. T. 3. P. 52.

Kant I. Works: In 8 vols. T. 3. P. 173, 176, 188, 193.

Kant I. Works: In 8 vols. T. 4. P. 409.

Schelling F.V.J. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1987–1989. T. 1. P. 193.

See: Hegel G.V.F. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences: In 3 volumes. M., 1974‑1977. T. 1. P. 201.

Hegel G.V.F. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 2. P. 576.

Feuerbach L. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1955. T. 1. P. 190.

Kierkegaard S. Fear and Trembling. M., 1993. P. 242.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. M., 1999‑2001. T. 6. P. 222.

In previous years, Schopenhauer published two works “On the Will in Nature” (1836) and “Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics” (1840) and republished his main work “The World as Will and Representation” in 1844, supplementing it with a second volume with commentaries on first.

The participation of reason in perception allows Schopenhauer to talk about the “intellectuality” of sensory contemplation.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. T. 2. P. 28.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. T. 1. P. 188.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. T. 1. P. 224.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. T. 5. P. 214.

Right there. T. 1. P. 331.

Schopenhauer L. Works: In 6 vols. T. 1. P. 348.

Right there. T. 5. P. 10.

Schopenhauer A. Works: In 6 vols. T. 6. P. 157.

Right there. P. 151.

Nietzsche F. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1990. T. 1. P. 301.

Right there. P. 573.

Nietzsche F. Works: In 2 vols. T. 2. P. 601.

Right there. pp. 768–769.

Nietzsche F. Works: In 2 vols. T. 2. P. 763.

Right there. P. 766.

Bergson A. Creative evolution. M., St. Petersburg, 1914. P. 230.

Pierce C.S. The beginnings of pragmatism. St. Petersburg, 2000. T. 1. P. 96.

Pierce C.S. The beginnings of pragmatism. T. 1. P. 103.

Right there. pp. 103–104.

Pierce C.S. The beginnings of pragmatism. T. J. P. 118.

Pierce C.S. The beginnings of pragmatism. T. 1. pp. 137–138.

Pierce C.S. The beginnings of pragmatism. T. 2. P. 327.

Right there. T. 1. P. 138.

James W. The Universe from a Pluralistic Perspective. M., 1911. P. 185. Almost at the same time, the concept of “stream of consciousness” was used by A. Bergson.

James W. Pragmatism. St. Petersburg, 1912. P. 93.

James W. Diversity of religious experience. M., 1910. P. 498.

James W. Pragmatism. pp. 9, 11.

Carnap R. Meaning and necessity. M., 1959. P. 301.

Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. M., 1959. P. 841.

Wittgenstein L. Philosophical works. M., 1994. Part 1. P. 5.

Wittgenstein L. Philosophical works. Part 1. pp. 72–73.

Right there. P. 22.

Right there. P. 56.

Logical Positivism. Ed. by A. J. Aier. L., 1959. P. 56.

Intention directed to the past.

Example: perceived color is noesis; color as the subject of an intentional act – noema; a real object with color appears before the mind's eye with different orientations of consciousness, sometimes as a noesis, sometimes as a noema.

Just in continuation of this tradition, the existentialist Sartre, similarly, - when he writes that the being of another opens to us a “look” (his, this other’s, look, of course) - we are talking about how, by what signs a person distinguishes among things a very specific object - another person.

Husserliana. Haag, 1950. Bd. 1. S. 124.

Husserliana. Bd. 1. S. 155.

Husserliana. Bd. I.S. 154.

Husserl E. Die Krisis der europaeischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phaenomenologie. Hamburg, 1977. S. 2.

Husserl E. Die Krisis der europaeischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentale Phaenomenologie. S. 4–5.

Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus'. The end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century. M., 1984. P. 453.

Skovoroda G. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1973. T. I. P. 437.

Lomonosov M.V. Selected. Philosopher prod. M., 1950. P. 93.

Right there. P. 356.

Chaadaev P. Ya. Full. collection op. and fav. letters. M., 1991. T. 1. P. 395.

Right there. P. 416.

Chaadaev P. Ya. Full. collection op. and fav. letters. T. 2. P. 98.

Khomyakov A. S. Full. collection cit.: In 8 vols. M., 1900‑1904. T. 3. P. 240‑241.

Khomyakov L. S. Full. collection cit.: In 8 vols. T. I. P. 213.

Khomyakov A. S. Works: In 2 vols. M., 1994. T. 2. P. 242.

Kireevsky I.V. Complete. collection op. M., 1911. T. 1. P. 252.

Samarin Yu. F. Selected prod. M., 1996. P. 431.

Right there. P. 436.

Samarin Yu. F. Selected prod. P. 417.

Aksakov K. S. Full. collection cit.: In 3 vols. M., 1881. T. 1. P. 58.

The theory of the state among the Slavophiles: Sat. articles. St. Petersburg, 1898. P. 25‑26.

The theory of the state among the Slavophiles: Sat. articles. P. 44.

See: Chernyshevsky N. G. Complete. collection cit.: In 15 vols. M„ 1939–1950. T. 2. P. 115.

Dostoevsky F. M. Complete. collection cit.: In 30 volumes. L., 1972–1990. T. 28, book. 1. P. 63.

Dostoevsky F. M. Complete. collection op. T. 26. P. 131.

Trubetskoy S. N. Op. M., 1994. P. 498.

See: Danilevsky N. Ya. Russia and Europe. M., 2003. P. 111.

Leontyev K. Ya. East, Russia and Slavism. M., 1996. P. 129.

Aristotle. Works: In 4 volumes, M., 1975. T. 1. P. 71.

Diogenes Laertius. About the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers. M., 1979. P. 71.

See: Fragments of early Greek philosophers. M., 1989. P. 103.

Aristotle. Works: In 4 vols. T. 1. P. 72.

Fragments of early Greek philosophers. P. 515.

Spinoza B. Fav. Prod.: In 2 vols. T. 1. P. 82.

Sokolov V.V. Introduction to classical philosophy. M., 1999. P. 206.

See: Toporov V.V. Model of the world // Myths of the peoples of the world: In 2 volumes. M., 1994. T. 2. P. 162.

Hegel G.V.F. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. M., 1974. T. 1. P. 103‑104.

Hegel G.V.F. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 1. P. 228.

Hegel G.V.F. Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences. T. 1. P. 258.

Gurevich A. Ya. Medieval world. The culture of the silent majority. M., 1990. pp. 81–82.

Rubinstein S. L. Problems of general psychology M., 1976. P. 327.

Gehlen A. Der Mensch, seine Natur und seine Stellung in der Welt. Bonn, 1955. S. 34‑35.

Jaspers K. Freiheit und Autoritat. Luzern, 1951. S. 12.

Jaspers K. Die geistige Situation der Zeit. Berlin, 1947. S. 31, 33.

Heidegger M. Sein und Zeit. Halle, 1929. S. 126‑127.

Jaspers K. Die geistige Situation der Zeit. S. 173.

Tolstoy L. Ya. Complete. collection cit.: In 90 vol. M.; L., 1934. T. 58. P. 11.

Right there. T. 41. M., 1957. P. 47.

Sorokin P. A. System of sociology. Pg., 1920. T. 1. P. 22.

Aron R. Stages of development of sociological thought. M., 1993. P. 26.

At one time, K. Marx, developing the European tradition in his views on society, expressed an important point that “the method of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general.” In general, this classification has stood the test of time, although the very problem of identifying and understanding the universal spheres of society is solved by many scientists in different ways.

In the historical excursion proposed above, we relied on the book by A. B. Zubov “History of Religions” (Moscow, 1977).

Frank S. L. Reality and man. M., 1997. pp. 278–279.

Bakhtin M. M., Towards the philosophy of action // Philosophy and sociology of science and technology. M., 1986. S. 91, 95.

Losev A.F. Dialectics of myth // Losev A.F. Philosophy. Mythology. Culture. M., 1991. P. 104.

Losev A.F. Vladimir Solovyov and his time. M., 1990. P. 212.

Heisenberg V. Steps beyond the horizon. M., 1987. S. 329, 149.

Basic terms

education creativity in education

continuity responsibility in

education education

questions and assignments

1. It is often argued which is better: to have a very good specialized
training or universal education. How do you feel about me-
nie?

2. French writer G. Flaubert asserted: “Everything that is beautiful
but - morally.” Consider the legality (illegality) of this -
th judgments using examples.

3. What do you see as the meaning of creativity in education?

4. How do you realize the value of self-education?

5. What place does philosophy occupy in your education? Change
Has your idea of the importance of philosophy in education changed?
last year?

6. Education is responsibility. Try to find a short one
a succinct definition of education that would be better
day.

7. Compare the definition of “education is responsibility” with
the following two definitions: “education is the transfer of knowledge
niy", "education is preparation for the practice of life." What are the merits?
you see advantages and disadvantages in each of the three definitions of philosophy
fii?

PHILOSOPHY COURSE IN TABLES

CONCLUSION.

Humanity, once realizing the role and significance of philosophy,
will always turn to her ideas, strive to identify, comprehend
to understand and develop the deeper meanings of one’s own existence.

Philosophy is creativity in man’s understanding of life and provision
cherishing her dignity. Philosophy is directed against collapse,
crisis, decline of civilization, culture and spirituality of man
ka. Philosophy is creativity in man's acquisition of freedom
and responsibility. IN modern world with its diversity
knowledge, humanistic values, life guidelines
the implementation of the desired synthesis is associated with certain
difficulties. But it is necessary to solve philosophical problems, because in pro-
Otherwise, a person is destined for weak-willed floundering in the ov-
ragas of technocracy and moral inferiority.

Many times they tried to find an equivalent replacement for philosophy,
but all these attempts ended in complete failure.
There is no need to look for a replacement for philosophy, it has glorified itself throughout the centuries,
it is much more expedient to direct efforts to assimilate its achievement
marriages and further development. All human life in general
is becoming more and more philosophically rich.

The more innovations and creativity there are in the world, the more philo-
Sophia is necessary for a person. This fully applies to
Lodym. Who is more daring than others? Young. Where is their audacity?
goes maximum support? In philosophy. In philosophy not
frivolous, not thoughtless, but filled with deep life
unfulfilled quests. Young Romeo, in love with Juliet,
called the philosophy “misfortune like sweet milk.” In a carefree
easy life, the wonderful voice of philosophy is drowned out by shouting
us of unbridled passions and rude actions. But as soon as
a person returns to the innermost parts of himself, so immediately
in the noise orchestra of life, philosophical melodies begin
sound both weighty and attractive.

Philosophy is not to blame for what some perceive
its golden towers, built of truth, beauty and goodness, for
replacement walls. The heights of philosophy do not attract everyone, this is true. But who
strives for them, he, like a brave climber, commits
to the ascent, reveals the previously unknown. Dare, who dares!

Annex 1

Table 1.Four eras in philosophy

Table 2.Ancient philosophy

Table 3.Medieval philosophy

Stage	Main interest	Key Ideas
Philo-	Love God and then do what you want	Monotheism
sofstvo-	scratch	Theocentrism
going into	Will as the essence of personality	Creationism
faith (Aw-	Freedom as a feature of the will (and not a	Faith in God
Gustin)	zoom)	Love for God
Harmony	Faith guides reason, reason is supported	Hope for salvation
tion ve-	believes	Good will
ry and ra-	Philosophy is an introduction to re-	Conscience
zoom	leagues	Human spirituality
(Thomas	Human freedom as reasonable	Symbolism
Aquin-	the will to move towards perfection
skiy)	God

Table 4.Philosophy of the New Age

Note. In the table according to the selected large-scale
the classification of philosophy of modern times does not specify the category
“Authors of basic philosophical concepts” in relation to the Renaissance era
birth. Of course, such Renaissance philosophers as Nikolay Ku-
Zansky, Marsilio Ficino, Giordano Bruno, deserve the most flattering
ratings. At the same time, it should be recognized that even the best philosophers of epic
he Renaissance failed to create concepts comparable in scale
things with creations Descartes, Locke, Kant.

Table 6.Philosophy about man

Historical era of philosophy	What is a person?
Antiquity	Microcosm Soul Soul is a manifestation of an idea (Plato) + body Soul is the form of a person (Aristotle)
Middle Ages	Spirituality + soul + body; spirituality is a person’s connection with God through faith, love, hope, conscience
New time	A rational being and acting according to the laws of reason (Locke, Kant) Manifestation public relations(Marx) A strong-willed and passionate being (Nietzsche)
XX century	A being that masters the world in accordance with the phenomenological work of consciousness (Husserl and other phenomenologists) A being that exists in the world and strives to understand it through language and experiences (care, fear, hope for the future) (Heidegger and other hermeneuts) A being , the boundary of which, its true nature, is language (Wittgenstein, Austin and other analytical philosophers) A creature that always distinguishes itself from the norms accepted in society, rebelling against the monotonous (Derrida, Foucault, Lyotard and other postmodernists) A creature in which the unconscious dominates the conscious (Freud and his followers)

Table 7. Philosophy about society
	What is society?
Antiquity	A collection of people who more or less successfully live according to the laws of justice
Middle Ages	“Earthly city” striving for “heavenly city”
New time	People living in accordance with their own established social contract (Locke, Rousseau) Product of the interaction of people based on their joint labor activity(Marx)
XX century	A system of social actions of people, the meaning of which is determined by the development of values (Weber, Parsons, Sorokin, etc.) Communication, the interaction of people according to norms established in a well-organized discussion (Habermas, etc.)

Note. In the philosophy of the 20th century. society is most often characterized by
in accordance with his chosen value guidelines. But you have to have
in mind that the path to these values can be different, namely: fe-
nomenological, hermeneutic, analytical, postmodern.

Table 8.Three main values

Table 9. Philosophy about beauty
Historical era of philosophy	What is beauty?
Antiquity	Cosmically harmonious and proportionate
Middle Ages	Symbol of the divine
New time	Characteristics of a work of art created according to the laws of reason, gravitating towards the principles of symmetry, proportion, measure, harmony, simplicity of style, balance of compositions (classicism) Characteristics of a work of art that embodies the diverse abilities of a person, including humor, irony , game, satire(romanticism)
XX century	A value developed on the basis of the phenomenological method and expressing the unity of man and a work of art (phenomenology) The essence of a work of art, its revelation to man as truth (hermeneutics) Emotion (analytical philosophy) Imagination of the really unimaginable, evoking a feeling of the sublime (postmodernism )

Note. Under beauty in this case the main price is understood
the essence of human sensory and aesthetic life. In other words, beauty is not
contrasted with the beautiful or sublime.

Note. Value is an interpretation in which a subject or group
pa people express their preferences. Every interpretation makes
through the use of certain philosophical methods.

Table 12.What is rational knowledge?

Historical era of philosophy	Ideals of goodness	Basic human virtues
Antiquity	Good	Wisdom, fairness
		courage, courage
Middle Ages	God	Faith, love, hope,
		conscience
New time	Rational free man (Locke, Rousseau)	Rationality, freedom (Locke, Rousseau)
	Absolute moral law (Kant)	Rationality, freedom (Kant)
	Society without exploitation (Marx)	Devotion to the cause of the proletariat (Marx)
	Superman (Nietzsche)	Will to Power (Nietzsche)
XX century	Positive values (phenomenologists)	Ability to use phenomenological methods
		house
	Achieving unity with	Respond adequately to the call
	existing, with the essence of things (hermeneuts)	things to match it
	Skill through ana-	Be consistent in
	Lisa tongue take into account	their actions
	consequences of actions (analysts)
	Deconstruction of logo and	The ability to “dissipate” the
	other centrisms (postmodernists)	valuables

Table 11.Three Concepts of Sensory Cognition

Historical era of philosophy	The nature of rational knowledge
Antiquity	Ideas are general things that exist in themselves and are embodied in a thing (Plato) Essence is the form of a thing, its internal unity, the nature of which is expressed in the rules of logic (Aristotle)
Middle Ages	Rational knowledge operates with universals that express the general; the general exists in God, in human thoughts, in the things themselves (medieval realists) The general does not exist, words designate individual things (nominalists) The general represents thoughts - generalizations, concepts (conceptualists)
New time	Man is born with clear ideas that can be operated according to the rules of deduction (Descartes, Leibniz). This is rationalism. A person has pre-experimental (a priori) principles that determine the possibility of logic (Kant) Thoughts are a product of the processing of feelings (Locke’s sensationalism) Thinking is the highest stage of cognition, overcoming the threshold of scientificity, allowing one to operate with ideas (Hegel) Thinking and logic are a reflection, practical tics, its most widespread situations (Marx)
XX century	Rational knowledge is a generalization achieved in the process of phenomenological work (phenomenologists). Logic is the rules of language, it primarily deals with the meanings and meanings of statements (analysts)

Table 13.Three modern concepts of truth

Table 16.Three theoretical methods

Table 14.What is truth?

Table 15.Levels of scientific research

Table 17.Philosophy of language

Philosophical concept of language	The main content of philosophical concepts of language
Philosophy of the name	A name is a unit of language, text. A name is a manifestation of ideas (Plato), essence (Aristotle, Losev), God (medieval philosophers). A name is a label, a designation of a single thing or its individual characteristics (nominalists)
Philosophy of proposal	The main unit of language and text is the sentence, the utterance. A sentence, if constructed correctly, has meaning and meaning, a truth/false function
Philosophy of values	The main unit of language is the text, which is characterized by the author’s value systems and the goals he seeks to achieve.

Historical era of philosophy	Interpretations of the nature of technology
Antiquity	Technology is the embodiment of the craftsman's skills. General knowledge is higher than technical knowledge
Middle Ages	Technology is human creativity as a reflection of divine creativity
New time	Technology is the objectification of human scientific knowledge, a factor in the liberation of man from nature. Technology is an independent force, which, as a means of labor, determines the development of society (Marx)
XX century	Technology, with a lack of phenomenological work, acts as a continuation of science and at the same time a derogation of the human life world (Husserl and other phenomenologists) Technology is an obstacle, a danger that man himself has set for himself without thinking it through content and, most importantly, the extent to which technology corresponds to the essence of human existence in the world (Heidegger and the hermeneuts) Technology is the embodiment of human rationality (analytics) Technology is a manifestation of the technical approach that is most suitable for the realities of our era, more precisely, philosophy of technical approach (G. P. Shchedrovitsky)

Historical era of philosophy	Interpretation of the specifics of nature
Antiquity	Nature is an organic part of the cosmos. Nature was often considered animate
Middle Ages	Nature was created by God according to his own design. In the hierarchy God - man - nature, the last link is nature
New time	Nature is a force that opposes man. A person must completely subjugate it to himself
XX century	Nature is an element that, thanks to the conscious activity of man, should become the kingdom of the domination of reason, the noosphere (V.I. Vernadsky, T. de Chardin) Nature is the world of human habitation. A person can understand nature thanks to the hermeneutic method (hermeneutics) Nature is our home, which must be landscaped according to the laws of rationality, taking into account all possible consequences of human activity (analytics) Nature is a complex system characterized by nonequilibrium condition. Man must strive in every possible way to ensure the joint evolution of nature and society (synergetic understanding)

Table 20.Second (non-natural) gender

TIPS FOR STUDENTS

Appendix 2

1. Take the study of philosophy as seriously as possible. Put-
Their goal is to understand the main ideas of great philosophers. When necessary
With a sense of purpose, these ideas are accessible to every student.

2. Get an idea of the structure of the textbook, carefully
but check out its table of contents. Pay special attention to the names
chapters Briefly, they give an idea of the contents of chickens.
sa philosophy. Learn to use apps.

3. When preparing for training sessions, first have a quick read
with the contents of the next chapter, and then proceed to carefully study
working of the material.

4. Read the textbook in paragraphs. Read the paragraph, think about it, you...
share his main position, develop your personal attitude
to it (do you agree with it, do you like it).

5. Strive to express the main point briefly, in one sentence.
marriage. Then make it more specific. The more you discover about
phenomena of the main idea, the better. This means that this idea acquires
In our opinion, proper weight.

6. Try to discern philosophical content everywhere - in art
given disciplines, in newspaper articles, novels and detective stories,
tions of politicians and your friends, in your own views.

7. When studying philosophy, strive for thoroughness, openness,
justice. The path to comprehending philosophy also requires a monologue (di-
thinking to oneself) and dialogue (communication with others). With myself each
He can talk at any time convenient for him. Much more complicated
It's all about establishing dialogue. There's no other way here but
look for interesting interlocutors. First of all, these are great fi-
losophists, philosophically no one can replace them. The same
Therefore, it is advisable not to miss every opportunity to get acquainted with the
views of outstanding philosophers. Reading the books of the great philosophies themselves
sofas or books and articles about them - for the reader this is also participation
in dialogue. Of course, correspondence dialogue with professional philosophers
It is advisable to supplement the famy with a lively conversation with friends, parent-
mi, teachers.

8. Follow the ancient admonition: “know thyself.” This requires attention
the most careful and critical attitude towards one’s own level
nude philosophizing. “What are my core values?” - here's the head-
This is a great question for a philosophically inclined person to ask himself.

9. Learn to philosophize, philosophize every day, don’t
indulge in the temptations of technical civilization. Noble fi-
losophization does not detract, but adorns a person.

FEDERAL COMPO
NENT STATE
EDUCATIONAL
STANDARD AVERAGE
PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION

mandatory minimum content

Subject of philosophy. Main milestones of world philosophical thought.
The nature of man and the meaning of his existence. Man and God. Human
and space. Man, society, civilization, culture. Freedom and response
personal property. Human cognition and activity. The science
and her role. Humanity in the face of global problems.

requirements for knowledge and skills

i-idea about philosophical, scientific and religious kar-
muds of the world, the meaning of human life, forms of human knowledge
and the peculiarities of its manifestation in modern society, the relationship
spiritual and material values, their role in the life of people
man, society, civilization.

Have an idea of the role of science and scientific knowledge, its structure
tour, forms and methods, social and ethical problems, related
with the development and use of achievements of science, technology and technology
nology.

Have an idea of the biological and social, bodily and mental
divine principles in man, about the essence of consciousness, conscious and unconscious
conscious in his behavior.

Have an idea of the conditions for the formation of personality, its
security and responsibility for preserving life, culture, the environment
natural environment.

Know the moral norms for regulating relations between people
mi in society.

PHILOSOPHY COURSE PROGRAM

Appendix 4

Topic 1. What is philosophy?

Topic 2. Ancient philosophy

Topic 3. Medieval philosophy

Topic 4. Modern philosophy

Topic 5. Philosophy of our days

Topic 6. Philosophy of man, society and history

Topic 7. Philosophy as axiology

Topic 8. Philosophy of knowledge and science

Topic 9. Philosophy of language

Topic 10. Philosophy of technology

Topic 11. Philosophy of nature

Topic 12. The second sex and philosophy

Topic 13. Philosophy of education

Note. The content of the topics coincides with the content of the chapters of the same name
textbook.

topic 1. What is Philosophy?

The meaning of the word "philosophy". Philosophy as searching and finding something
a seeker of answers to the main questions of his existence. Examples of philosophers
stabilization. Scientific, sensory-aesthetic and moral-practical
orientation of philosophy. Worldview, methodological, humane
nistic and practical functions of philosophy. Purpose of philosophy
fii: the rise of man, ensuring his improvement.

topic 2. ancient philosophy

Ancient natural philosophy. The emergence of philosophy as a re-
the result of the creativity of the ancient Greeks. The problem of the one and the many. Eat-
noe as: material substances (Milesians), numbers (Pythagoras), mono-
cast whole (Eleatics), atoms and emptiness (Leucippus And Democritus).

High intellectualism of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Co-
briefly about the human soul. Ethics of Socrates. Dialectics of Socrates. Death of Co-
krata: his adherence to the principle of non-violence.

Concepts of Plato's ideas. Understanding ideas as the limit of becoming
of things and as a generative model of a class of things. Interpretation
based on the concept of ideas of the nature of space, man and society.

Aristotle's doctrine of forms. Four types of reasons. Logic, these-
ka and the doctrine of society Aristotle.

Hellenistic philosophy. Cynics, Epicureans, Stoics and skeptics about meaning
le life. Neoplatonism. The principle of the One Good. Characteristic black
you are ancient philosophy.

topic 3. medieval philosophy

Philosophy and religion. The main biblical ideas of philosophical knowledge
values; monotheism, theocentrism, creationism, faith, good will, ethi-
ka moral duty, conscience, love, hope, human spirituality,
symbolism. Is it possible to prove the existence of God?

topic 4. modern philosophy

Philosophy of the Renaissance. Main ideas: shift towards an-
tropocentrism, understanding of man as a creative personality, aesthetic
logical attitude to reality, humanism.

Philosophy from Descartes to Kant(XVII-XVIII centuries). Philosophy De-
map: clarity of ideas is an innate quality of a person; deduction; compare
the relationship between knowledge and facts; a reasonable person. Sensual concept
knowledge Locke. Confrontation between sensualists and rationalists. Gali
lei And Newton - creators of theoretical mechanics. The nature of the ideal
tions. Development of a new legal worldview. Philosophy
Kanta: total abilities of the soul, cognitive abilities, app-
rior principles, ethics.

Philosophy from Hegel to Nietzsche. Hegel: philosophy must become
universal science, logic of ideas. Philosophy Marx: public
labor as the basis of society, criticism of capitalism, practice as cri-
terium of truth. Superman concept Nietzsche like the last splash
and the decline of modern philosophy.

Characteristic features of modern philosophy: anthropocentrism,
epistemological attitude, development of methods of cognition, desire
arrange a person’s life on clear and reasonable principles.

topic 5. Philosophy of our days

Phenomenology. Philosophy Husserl. The interest of phenomenologists in “ra-
bot", the specifics of consciousness. Enrichment of the flow of phenomena due to water
images. Development of eidos, its designation by statements. Estimated
as an object of contemplation based on the developed eidos. Criticism of lunch-

understanding of the life world in the abstractions of science and superficial understanding
Research Institute of Technology.

Hermeneutics. The existence of man in the world of entities. His questioning.
Correlation between man and the world (things). Human abandonment
in the world, its concern, fear, temporaryness. Horizons of man and things. By-
attention as an interpretation based on a person’s involvement in traditional
tion, his education, taste, talent.

Analytical philosophy. Language analysis. "Logical-philosophical
treatise" by Wittgenstein and his main ideas: language as the boundary of the muscular
lenia, correspondence of sentences to facts, attribution of aesthetic,
ethical and religious to the sphere of mysticism. Logical positivism:
denial of philosophy, analytical and synthetic proposals,
testability principle, physicalism. Postpositivism: hypothetical
deductive construction of theory, its falsification, replacement of theories
and research programs, scientific revolutions. Philosophy
natural language of late Wittgenstein: meaning of the word like it
usage, “family resemblance” of words.

Postmodernism. Protest against logocentrism, uniformity, auto-
tories, established norms of power. Deconstruction method Derrida.
The rapprochement of philosophy with poetics. Aesthetics of the sublime Lyotard.

Philosophy in Russia. The main provisions of dialectical and
toric materialism (primacy of matter, knowability of the world,
practice as a criterion of truth, the laws of dialectics, the determining role
in a society with an economic basis, socialist ideals). Basic
main features of Russian philosophy: the ideal of integrity, positive unity
stva. Justification of absolute good, conciliarity, intuitionism, closer
the combination of truth with righteousness, cosmism. Philosophy B.C. Solovyova,
H.A. Berdyaeva, A.F. Loseva.

Eastern philosophy. Main features of Indian philosophy.
Formula: “Atman is Brahman.” The main features of Chinese philosophy
philosophy, its ethical orientation. The ratio of western and eastern
philosophies.

topic 6. Philosophy of man, society and history

Choosing the beginning of systematic philosophizing.

Philosophy of man. Man as a microcosm and the unity of the soul
and bodies. Medieval philosophy: tripartite human - spirit -
ness, soul, body. Homo sapiens (New time). Man as a co-
the center of social relations (Marx)."Superman" (Nit-
she). The unconscious is the basis of man (Freud). A person from the perspective of a german
meneutics, phenomenology, analytical philosophy and postmodern
nizma. Man, his uniqueness and universality, historicity and creativity
quality.

topic 13. Philosophy of education

The purpose of education is humanity. The ratio of preparation and
education The unity of truth, beauty and goodness in education. Future -
for creativity. Continuity of education, self-education. Place fi-
losophy in education. Education is a responsibility.

Topic No.	Topic name	Lectures or seminars, h	Independent work of students, h
	What is philosophy?	1/2/1	1/2/1
	Ancient philosophy	5/8/5	5/10/5
	Medieval philosophy	2/4/2	2/4/1
	Modern philosophy	4/8/4	4/8/4
	Philosophy of our days	6/12/8	6/12/4
	Philosophy of man, society and history	4/8/4	4/8/3
	Philosophy as axiology	4/8/4	4/8/3
	Philosophy of knowledge and science	4/10/4	4/8/3
	Philosophy of language	1/2/-	1/2/1
	Philosophy of technology	1/2/-	1/2/1
AND	Philosophy of nature	2/2/-	2/4/2
	The second sex and philosophy	1/2/-	1/2/1
	Philosophy of education	1/2/-	1/2/1
	Total	36/70/32	36/72/32

Philosophy of society. The relationship between the individual and society. Social
nal actions and their meaning. Understanding society in antiquity (the idea of the
prudence), the Middle Ages (the idea of an “earthly city”), modern times
(the concept of a social contract) and today (the idea of value
installations).

Philosophy of history. Various concepts of the historicity of society
va: cyclicality (antiquity), break of cyclicality by biblical sources
ries (Middle Ages), linearity and progressiveness (Modern times), non-
linearity (modernity). Unity and diversity of history. Behind-
pad - Russia - East.

topic 7. Philosophy as axiology

Teaching about values. The term "axiology". Characteristics of
types of values. Value as an interpretation in which the subject expresses
presses his preferences. Measuring values. Feelings, emotions, will,
doubt, ideal and goal as values.

Philosophy of art. Civilization and culture. Beauty as es-
theoretical value. Characteristics of beauty in various philosophies
Chinese directions and systems (from antiquity to modernity).

Philosophy of practice. Practice as a human activity
achieving the goal. Structure of practice: subject, goal, purposeful
activity, means of practice, object of practical action, re-
the result of practice. Clarification of the value of practice in the process of philosophical
sky interpretation. Goodness as the main value of practice. Change-
understanding of ideas about goodness (from antiquity to the present day). Measurement
of good. Justice, freedom and responsibility as ideals of practice
ki. Ethics of responsibility: classical and non-classical concepts
tions.

topic 8. Philosophy of knowledge and science

Philosophy of knowledge. Sensory cognition by Locke, Kant
And Husserl. Sensation, perception, idea. Rational
knowledge: concept, judgment, inference. The nature of the concept. Pronya-
It is a generalization thought that allows one to explain facts. Unity of feelings
natural and rational knowledge. Memory and imagination, intuition.
Creation. Structure of the psyche: unconscious, conscious and superconscious
body wear The nature of truth. Three concepts of truth (the concept of correspondence
correspondence, coherence, pragmatism). Truth scale. Feeling,
explanation, understanding. Multidimensionality of truth.

Philosophy of Science. Science as a human activity to develop,
systematization and testing of knowledge. The empirical level of scientific knowledge

knowledge: experiment, observation, modeling, measurement. Theoretically
ical level of scientific knowledge. Empirical and theoretical concerns
horses. Methods of scientific knowledge: axiomatic, hypothetico-deductive
tive. The relationship between theory and practice. Ideals and ethics of a scientist. Fi-
philosophy, religion and science.

topic 9. Philosophy of language

Philosophy of the name. A name as an expression of the essence of a thing. Name as
sign. The name as a symbol of peace.

Philosophy of proposal. A sentence and its truth/false function
ness. The meaning and meaning of the sentence. Semantics and syntax.

Philosophy of value systems. Expression of values
new in the language. Pragmatics. Language as a symbol of our life. Metalanguage
and object language. Unity and diversity of languages. Formalized
and the communicative purpose of language.

topic 10. Philosophy of technology

The formation of the philosophy of technology. Technology as a symbol of activity
personality, his values. Technology as the development of matter, energy,
information. Criticism of technicalism Husserl And Heidegger. G.P. More
Drovitsky about the merits of the technical approach. Is it possible to replace
a person with a technical device? Technology and ethics. Moral co-
dex.

topic 11. Philosophy of nature

Characteristics of the term “nature”. Historical forms of
man's relationship to nature (from antiquity to the present day). Concept
noosphere IN AND. Vernadsky. Synergetics is the science of complexity. Hypothesis
for the Big Bang. Levels of organization of nature. Space and time
me. Nature and human responsibility. Ecological, biological
kaya, medical ethics.

topic 12. second sex and philosophy

Second, the social nature of men and women. Male dominance
rank over women. Feminism is the struggle of women for their rights. Ha-
characteristics of the values on the basis of which ideas are formed
ideas about masculinity and femininity. Philosophy of love.

METHODOLOGICAL NOTES
(FOR TEACHERS)

Dear colleagues! Allow me in absentia exchange
experience in teaching philosophy to formulate a number of judgments and
desires.

In our opinion, the often renewed debate about optionality and yes-
the same contraindications for studying philosophy in secondary specialized
educational institutions has no serious grounds. American M. Lip-
man developed the course “Philosophy for Children.” According to his recommendation
tions, philosophy lessons are introduced from the first grades of school. Already accumulated
solid positive experience, which N.S. wrote well about. Yudi-
on (see: Yulina N.S. Philosophy for children // Questions of philosophy.
1993. No. 9. P. 151-158). In light of this, one cannot in any way welcome
receiving from the philosophy of boys and girls receiving secondary education
al education. I guess they can outdo the kids
in understanding everything that can be called the world of philosophy.

Opponents of teaching philosophy in secondary special education, or,
as they are now commonly called, vocational educational institutions
in our opinion, perhaps they are too complacent about that worldview
the chaotic chaos into which everyone who receives modern
education, higher or secondary specialized, with its ramified
disciplinary structure. The student is attacked almost daily
create a stream of diverse information that does not fit well with the value
national attitudes, opposite in meaning calls and slogans.
Teaching philosophy is unlikely to bring ideas into this flow.
nal order, but at least it will provide the student with an instrument -
ryem for his more or less conscious attitude to the world multi-
pressing details, uncertainties, ramifications. From this point
There is no alternative to teaching philosophy. Accordingly no
alternatives to the work of a philosophy teacher. This work can be done by you
only he, no one else from among the non-philosophical teachers, can complete
Russian disciplines.

Philosophy should be taught seriously and thoroughly. Other-
it's not a given. Unfortunately, attempts to offer
students some ridiculously simplified philosophy courses. This
leads to the fact that nothing remains of genuine philosophy. Next
It must be kept in mind that over the past two or three decades there has been a
public intensification of teaching academic disciplines in the middle
them special educational institutions. This also applies to natural
and to technical disciplines. Students study integral and differential

differential calculus, information theory. They are, as shown
practice, normal philosophy is quite feasible. Philosophy, adapt-
adapted to the conditions of a secondary educational institution, but does not cease to
destined to be a full-fledged philosophy course.

Authors of textbooks and teaching aids on philosophy, teaching
Philosophers should, in our opinion, be extremely careful
in adapting a philosophy course. There are especially many negative consequences
carries with it the desire to invent some synthetic philosophy
philosophy, which allegedly contains at once the virtues of all philosophies
ski systems. Upon closer examination, it becomes clear in such cases
teas that world philosophy is presented as insufficiently reflective
roved point of view. Modern philosophy has a pluralistic
Chinese character. This is fundamental to teaching philosophy
fact, regardless of the type of educational institution where it is taught
implementation is carried out. That is why in our textbook on pluralism
modern philosophy is given primary attention.

The teaching of philosophy in various countries of the world is now carried out by
according to two options, which were given the name “German” and “American”
Kansky". The “German” version of teaching philosophy concludes:
in the historical and philosophical problematization of the course of philosophy. "Ame-
The Rican version consists of a course presentation analytical philo-
sophia, from the standpoint of which not so frequent interspersed
of historical and philosophical material.

Our textbook quite deliberately uses “German” language.
option, which is typical for the vast majority of European
sko-continental countries. At the same time, the textbook pays due attention to
Much attention is paid to analytical philosophy. Her achievements are certainly
it’s time to include philosophy in Russian textbooks. At the same time it is unlikely
is it advisable in Russia, which is the largest European
power, blindly follow the path of American philosophical art
lasionism.

At the risk of inviting the fire of merciless criticism, we nevertheless
we consider it less necessary to express our opinion on the use
in teaching philosophy orientation towards dialectical materialism
(for the sake of brevity, we do not mention historical materialism)
and Russian philosophy.

Dialectical materialism is now in crisis. Teaching
For the giver of philosophy, the origins of this state of affairs are obviously good
known. It is more difficult to understand that cosmetic repairs use
in Soviet time courses of dialectical materialism, iso-
full of dogmatic references to the works of the classics of the
Sism-Leninism, gives little. Russian professional philosophers
Lamas have a lot of work to do to comprehend the achievements
and shortcomings of dialectical materialism Soviet period. On the-
as far as we know, such work is far from being completed,

in the current conditions, the philosophy teacher has nothing left
how to develop your own attitude towards diabetes at your own risk
lectical materialism. In our opinion, the dialectical mother
ism in its modern form is not a worthy alternative to pre-
reached a high level of development of Western philosophy.

Many methodological difficulties are associated with understanding pedagogical
gical value of Russian philosophy. Two extremes are especially inappropriate -
ness. Firstly, contrasting Russia from a philosophical point of view
knowledge to the rest, especially the Western, intellectual world. In-
secondly, the denial of Russian philosophy of its meaning-forming function
tions in the Russian mentality. Inappropriate as blind worship
before the philosophy of the West, and the Russian philosophical jingoism
tism. In this regard, it seems reasonable to us to consider Russian
Russian philosophy in the context of world philosophical thought.

About the shortage of teaching time. The vast majority of teachers
Philosophers complain, quite rightly, about the shortage
school time. A rhetorical question is often heard: is it possible?
teach philosophy in 32 hours. Indeed, allotted for study
philosophy 32-40 academic hours of lectures and seminars
Philosophy teachers are put in the position of a kind of zugzwang: they don’t want to
seems to impoverish the course of philosophy (in order to “meet” the answer-
instructional time spent on classes), and teach a full-fledged course
philosophy, which will be studied only partially. Position
difficult, but not catastrophic.

Firstly, successful teaching of philosophy, growth of authority
teacher of philosophy, of course, opens the way to increasing the volume
The amount of educational time allocated to the study of philosophy. Secondly,
any shortage of teaching time does not close the path of pedagogical
creativity, finding the best ways to teach.

In our opinion, even in conditions of an undeniable shortage of educational
time, one should not abandon the orientation towards studying non-original
verkanny, but full-fledged educational material. In this regard, part
The material should be provided to the student for easy reading.
The student must familiarize himself with each chapter of the textbook, but by no means
It is not necessary to include in the questionnaires for tests and exams all co-
holding a textbook. Much can be used as ma-
material for messages, reports, abstracts, conferences. Due
with various hourly planning of the philosophy course we bring-
There are three options for this planning. Of course, everyone
applicant, guided by the federal component of the State
educational standard of secondary vocational education
vaniya, is free to carry out hourly course planning in his own way.
new philosophy.

About the relatively independent structural components of educational
Nika. The chapters and topics of the textbook are arranged in such a way that they

develop relatively independent structural components This
in particular, two parts of the textbook: “Main stages of philosophy” (topics
2-5) and “Systematic course of philosophy” (topics 6-13). Since the second
This part is in many respects a continuation of the first, then it
it is unwise to study as a stand-alone course in philosophy.
In case of an acute shortage of teaching time, we recommend that
The first part is the basis of the textbook.

When dividing the textbook material into three parts, three stand out:
large structural units: topics 1-5, topics 1-8, topics 1-13 (all
textbook). Topics 1-8 provide fairly comprehensive information about the state
knowledge of modern philosophy, its main “painful” points.

Against a nameless philosophy. Teaching many educational dis-
ciplinus is largely nameless. Name or
another scientist is mentioned only in the case when it is assigned for-
laws (for example, laws Newton, Mendel and so on.). Teaching practice
giving philosophy shows that nameless philosophy is boring and
shen of significant landmarks. The names of philosophers should be heard.
This is true of eminent philosophers, besides
the given names of philosophers are remembered, sometimes unconsciously, by the student.
dents and allow them, even years later, to have an idea of the structure
tour of philosophy.

We bring to the attention of the reader quite a lot of names of issuers.
living philosophers. This means that for the student the textbook is
a small encyclopedia. It seems that the teacher should determine
Lit: the contribution of which particular philosophers to modern culture should
wives know student. Our minimal list of names of philosophers sees-
like this: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle(antiquity), Christ(beginning
lo new era), Descartes, Locke, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche(New time
me), Husserl, Heidegger, Wittgenstein, Derrida(XX century), Soloviev, Berdyaev,
Losev(Russian philosophy).

About the language of philosophy. The language of philosophy is quite specific,
it contains many words of Greek and Latin origin
and for this reason alone it seems difficult to many. Teaching practice
philosophy shows that it is completely unreasonable to strive
in all cases, Greek and Latin terms are reinterpreted into Russian
tongue-in-cheek manner. If we did this, we would excommunicate the students
tov from original philosophical literature. And this is instead of...
on the contrary, to provide them with the necessary tools for reading
publication of philosophical books and articles. The language of philosophy should be taught with
with all the care of philologists, without leaving any
term.

Teaching philosophy should be interesting. This is an axiom.
But when exactly is teaching philosophy interesting? Hi-
degger once explained that philosophical interest takes place where
man encounters existence. This is not about emotions that are immediately

Note. Of course, the above list contains elements of production
ox, for there were and are much more outstanding philosophers than are indicated here-
zano. The six dozen names listed give the reader an easily visible chronological
nick. The student of philosophy should be guided by it.

In conclusion, let us turn to those trends in modern philosophy that carry it into the future and, perhaps, determine it. Philosophy is creativity in man's understanding of life and ensuring its future. Philosophy is directed against the collapse, crisis, decline of civilization, culture and human spirituality. Philosophy is reflection, creativity for a person to gain freedom. Achieving success in philosophy, of course, is not easy. In the modern world, with its diversity of knowledge, humanistic values, life guidelines, the implementation of the desired synthesis, the creation of a holistic image of the world turns out to be a task that is obviously beyond the control of individuals, no matter how smart they are. But this problem must be solved, because otherwise humanity is destined for weak-willed floundering in the ravines of technocracy, scientism, and finally, even moral inferiority. Humanity, once realizing the role and significance of philosophy, will always turn to the arsenal of its ideas, seeking to identify, comprehend and develop the deep meanings of its own existence, which it is forced to clothe in various symbolic forms - linguistic, cultural, technical and others.

At the same time, it should be frankly admitted that the firmament over modern philosophy is by no means cloudless. Frequently appearing publications about the crisis of philosophy are also not unfounded. In this regard, it can be pointed out that philosophy in its traditionally speculative forms does not always keep up with the rapid pace of modern scientific and technological innovations; its forecasts are often late, and their practical significance leaves much to be desired. Naive people, especially among positivist-oriented scientists, even believe that philosophy is outdated, that it should supposedly be replaced by some new positive knowledge. This kind of maxim is invariably refuted by the very course of historical progress, the problematic aspects and troubles of which by their very presence indicate the need for the development of philosophy. Let us note that crisis phenomena exist in all sciences, in all areas of culture. So in this sense, philosophy cannot be an exception. However, along with this, it should be recognized that the crisis phenomena in philosophy are to a large extent the result of inattention to its requests from those in power. The crisis of philosophy is not so much the result of the creative weakness of professional philosophers as a direct manifestation of the philosophical level of a given society. Every society has a philosophy that it deserves.

As for the need for a new philosophy, for the further progress of modern philosophy, it is enormous. It is in this regard that we are optimistic about the future of philosophy. It is no coincidence that in modern philosophy there is a shift towards spiritual issues; many works of ethical and aesthetic content appear that prevent the growth of the existential vacuum. Another tendency of modern philosophy is to concretize philosophical knowledge with careful use of the apparatus of science. The importance of analytical, rationalistic tendencies in philosophy is steadily increasing. Neoclassical trends are further developed, of course, while maintaining continuity with the classics. The dialogue between different philosophical trends is becoming more and more productive.

Finally, human life as a whole is becoming more and more rich in philosophical terms. The more innovations and creativity there are in the world, the more philosophy is needed by a person.

Dear reader! Let me end the text with poems by G. Hesse, which will be understandable to those who are not indifferent to the spiritual heights of philosophy:

Don’t look for shelters, don’t settle down,

Step by step, without sadness,

Step forward, go from distance to distance,

Be wider and rise higher!

Scientific knowledge, as we have already noted, is a powerful means of conquering nature, solving practical problems necessary for the reproduction of human life.

But with all its enormous capabilities, including the forecasting and planning of economic and social activities carried out by social sciences for a certain period, it itself, independently, without the help of other forms of intellectual and spiritual activity, is not capable of developing those general principles and norms of human behavior that determine the basic life attitudes of a person, his way of life, the very strategy of human and social development. With all its enormous cognitive capabilities, concrete scientific knowledge is not able to identify and record all possible positive and negative consequences of social life, in particular the consequences of modern scientific and technical creativity of people.

This is explained not only historically disabilities scientific knowledge, but also the specificity of social reality itself, where the general result of all individual intentions and actions and the resulting, objective development trend that develops on their basis do not coincide either with individual desires or with the aggregate activity of members of society as such. As Engels noted, when performing conscious actions, people can foresee, at best, only the immediate consequences to which they will lead, but cannot foresee the long-term social consequences of their actions. In other words, the results of historical activity, all the pros and cons of the further existence of man are not fully recorded by scientific knowledge and do not allow us to neutralize all its possible consequences destructive to life.

This circumstance, however, does not remove the urgent task of a more rational organization of social life, the need to plan and implement not only scientific, technical, tactical, but also general measures strategic level, ensuring the neutralization of both scientifically recognized and theoretically assumed so-called anonymous negative factors of socio-historical development. And this can only be accomplished with the help of theoretical, philosophical knowledge and explanation of reality based on scientific and other knowledge, along the path of philosophical definition of general problems and tasks, principles and norms of modern human activity, development and practical approval of such a life position and way of life, such attitudes towards all forms of human activity, and above all to scientific and technical creativity, which would make it possible to block and thereby prevent its possible destructive consequences.

The specific function of philosophy in solving these problems is to a certain extent reflected in the conventional division of types of human knowledge that we often encounter in modern Western philosophical literature. If we discard the opposition characteristic of this classification various types human knowledge, and in some cases a religious-eschatological interpretation of the purpose of philosophy, then we can agree that, in contrast to scientific knowledge, which serves mainly the specific needs and practical orientation of a person in the world, philosophy can be characterized as “saving” knowledge. Of course, in this case we are not talking about divine redemption and the achievement of a blissful life in the “kingdom of heaven,” but about the social and moral responsibility of man and humanity in the organization and appropriate direction of modern personal and public life, about the salvation of human life on Earth, about the emergency the relevance today of the humanistic ideological, regulatory and methodological functions of philosophy, about one of its traditional functions, in which it acts as a theoretical teaching about life wisdom, about the ways and means of justifying human life, about the help that it can and should provide in solving fundamental life problems of humanity.

Consideration of the relationships in which philosophy, this fundamental area of human spiritual activity, and man himself as a subject and creation of the modern historical era, leads to the need to illuminate questions about the nature of philosophical knowledge and its dominant function in the modern world, about what it gives and can provide solutions to a person’s life problems, and, finally, about a person as a problem of philosophy itself.

As the self-awareness of the culture of a certain historical era, philosophy develops its theoretical principles and value systems depending on the characteristics of the development of science and social practice of this era, on the specific weight and social significance various fields spiritual culture. It is therefore quite understandable and justified to clarify the functions and nature of philosophy of our days, primarily in the context of its relations with science, the proportion of which has unusually increased in the life of modern society. No one will deny the increased importance of the methodological and critical-reflective functions of philosophy in relation to scientific knowledge, its role in ensuring interdisciplinary cooperation. Equally obvious is the enormous importance of concrete scientific knowledge as a meaningful source of philosophical knowledge, stimulating philosophical activity and enriching its worldview. The organic inclusion in the principles and methods of philosophy of thought standards, criteria of rationality and scientific character, emerging in the bosom of concrete scientific knowledge and its theoretical constructions, has and should have a positive effect.

But philosophy determines its provisions on the basis of processing generalized and specific material from the most diverse regions of culture, including science. At the same time, philosophical principles and methods, despite their genetic connection and dependence on these cultural regions, are not reducible to their specific methods and principles, but have their own special nature. Philosophy has its own means and ways of knowing and mastering reality, its own criterion of rationality and scientificity, embodying a certain concrete historical, organic unity of value-worldview, practically spiritual and scientific-theoretical elements. Therefore, speaking about its methodological and critical-reflexive obligations towards science, it is important to clarify the nature of the means by which these functions are carried out. It's one thing when philosophy acts as independent form theoretical activity that clarifies, substantiates and criticizes scientific knowledge from the standpoint of its own tasks and criteria. Another thing is when it is content with the same logical-theoretical means and criteria that arise within the framework of science itself and which, for the same purpose and no less successfully, can be interpreted and applied by scientists themselves.

In Western philosophy, especially in neopositivist and postpositivist concepts of the philosophy of science, the nature of philosophy is viewed and characterized in its extreme and highly exaggerated dependence on science. It is actually placed in the position of a kind of methodological and theoretical-instrumental servant of specific sciences and various particular forms of human activity. Emphasizing the truly existing dependence of philosophy on concrete scientific knowledge, the authors of these concepts deny it the right to be an independent and specific form of knowledge. In fact, a philosophical theory of the world, if such a possibility is recognized, is considered and assessed as an interpretation of reality that does not carry new knowledge about it, and philosophical methodology is reduced to a kind of metascientific methodology that uses theoretical and logical-methodological means for critical-reflective purposes science itself. Philosophy as general theory world and man, the methodology of all his theoretical and practical activities, as a means of critical self-reflection, born not only in line with logical-theoretical and scientific research, comprehension of the historical paths of scientific progress and the mechanisms of functioning of science, but also on the basis of a generalization of the entire cumulative social and cultural experience humanity, remains out of sight or is not taken into account to the extent it deserves.

Consciously or unwittingly, science is viewed as a kind of autonomous and self-sufficient force in human life. It does not take into account the well-known fact that it functions within a certain culture, in a system of specific social relations, and that the use of the creative possibilities of science and technology, as well as the elimination of the negative, destructive consequences of their development, is directly and significantly dependent on the nature and direction of social life in each country, global socio-political development as a whole. Therefore, the increased importance of science in modern conditions requires not just methodological assistance to the process of scientific knowledge, improvement and improvement of its means. To an even greater extent and incomparably more acute, the task of social, spiritual and moral support for modern scientific and technological development arises, its subordination to certain values, ideals and humanistic principles of our time.

The need for precisely this attitude of philosophy to science is dictated by the fact that science, despite its unusually increased role in the life of modern society, does not contain criteria and imperatives for the appropriate cultural and social application of its achievements, and therefore can be used as beneficial and to the detriment of humanity. In this regard, philosophical orientation towards the creation of such forms of social life, international economic and political cooperation, and cultural relations in which humanity will be able to ensure reliable control over the powerful forces of its own scientific and technical creativity and solve vitally important issues for it becomes especially relevant. global problems, and first of all the most important of them - the problem of achieving lasting and lasting universal peace.

Having recognized the importance of these tasks, one cannot be satisfied only with specific scientific forecasts and projects designed to serve the optimal functioning of already existing socio-political and economic mechanisms. Today, more than ever, it is necessary to develop common projects for social and cultural renewal, the creation of qualitatively new forms of domestic life and international relations. And the development of such projects is possible only within the framework of social philosophy, with specific means of philosophical scientific and theoretical forecasting and justification.

Understanding science as an important fragment of modern cultural and social practice allows us to acutely feel the one-sidedness and insufficiency of narrow scientific methodological interaction with it. It is quite obvious that for the truly philosophical support of modern scientific and technological progress, the tasks, values and requirements brought to life by the general course of socio-political and cultural development, the strict need for a timely solution to the fundamental problems of modern human existence, become of great importance. The development of practically effective and humanistic norms of human activity in the age of science and technology, even more than ever, requires philosophy to comprehend and take into account in its generalizations and fundamental guidelines all those cognitive and creative possibilities that exist in the non-scientific spheres of human culture, social and spiritual life of a person. It is on these paths that philosophy will be able to most fully realize its responsibilities to science.

Considering philosophy not only as a theory that explains the world, but also as a way of practically spiritually mastering it and changing it in the spirit of advanced ideals and values of humanity, Marxism has always attached great importance to its ideological function, to the most general principles and norms of human activity that it developed in the basis of scientific and theoretical knowledge of the objective laws of natural and socio-historical development, those spiritual and moral attitudes and imperatives that she postulated in accordance with this knowledge. And now, in their theoretical and practical activities, in the large and small achievements of modern socio-political practice, Marxists are guided by those strategic guidelines and perspectives that follow from philosophical knowledge and vision of the tasks and paths of further historical development.

Philosophy by its nature truly represents a theoretical form of worldview, or an extremely general worldview theory. This means that philosophy justifies the laws and principles of its worldview logically, with specific theoretical means, thereby revealing its certain fundamental commonality with science. At the same time, in its ideological principles and assessments, it comprehends the material of all existing culture, all social experience, various forms practical-spiritual activity of man. Philosophy formulates and expresses its understanding of the world in objectively impersonal and universal theoretical positions based on the facts of science. But she also masters reality on the basis of generalization and comprehension of the process of conscious, purposeful human activity, through his emotional, psychological and value-moral orientation in the world, determined by specific forms of moral and aesthetic views, ideological conviction and factors of everyday consciousness. When characterizing philosophy as a theoretical expression of concrete historical scientific and social experience, a value-based worldview approach to reality, one should also take into account the fact that it has its own “eternal” themes and problems, reflecting certain enduring and fundamental foundations of human life. This, in particular, explains the special position of the history of philosophy as an important theoretical basis and subject of all philosophizing.

The complex and synthetic nature of the object of philosophical knowledge, as well as specific theoretical means, with the help of which philosophy cognizes and explains the world and man, determine its own nature. Philosophy is not a general theory of the world or man, it is a general theory of the world and man in their organic connection and interaction, the philosophy of human life in the world. In its generalizations, philosophy is based on scientific knowledge and on the value attitude to reality, expressing one or another life-ideological position of a person, social group, class. Philosophical laws and principles, regardless of what they relate to - the world or to man, are not just objective truths, but also subjectively experienced provisions, indicators of a person’s certain attitude to the world, to his own being; they simultaneously embody the truth and value, scientific knowledge, understanding of man and the world and comprehension of their meaning and significance.

Philosophical truth of life - let us use this, in our opinion, more capacious concept - unlike scientific truth, combines or should combine truth and justice in their possible harmonious unity. Philosophy tells a person both about his real position in the world and about his life purpose, not only about what he is, but also about what he can and should become. Accordingly, the essence of a particular philosophy is largely determined by how it combines scientific-theoretical and value-spiritual aspects. To assert the truth and justice of its principles and principles, it has always used and is now using, on the one hand, scientific and logical constructs, and on the other, value norms and concepts. And since philosophy not only scientifically and theoretically substantiates something, but also postulates it as a given, it turns to various methods of persuasion that affirm faith in the justice and validity of the put forward postulates. To do this, she chooses one or another principle of faith and belief.

Ancient philosophy, for example, relied on faith in the rationality of the cosmos, nature, and objective world order; the Middle Ages lived by metaphysical faith in the rationality and justice of the divine principle and the world order emanating from it; in modern times, the substantiation of philosophical principles was served by the “objective truth” of nature, absolute spirit and scientific knowledge. Modern philosophy uses both scientific-theoretical and value-based, spiritual-moral justification for its positions. At the same time, scientistic and anti-scientist concepts of Western philosophy, as a rule, were developed and are now being developed by contrasting these two methodological principles, treating them as incompatible and mutually exclusive concepts. This approach contradicts the actual state of affairs: the dialectical interconnectedness and interdependence of the objective and subjective, scientific and value, theoretical and practical-spiritual sides of philosophical world knowledge. After all, a value attitude, despite the uniqueness of its nature and all kinds of mediation, has objective scientific knowledge as one of its sources, just as scientific knowledge is always that sawing of the objective state of affairs that develops under the direct or indirect influence of a certain value-practical attitude . At the same time, the dialectical synthesis of objective and subjective, scientific and value should not be reduced to some kind of mutually absorbing merging of these different principles. Expressing their essential interconnection and interdependence, such a synthesis must preserve the constant presence and certain independence of these parties within the framework of a specific unity.

Philosophy is true to its purpose, to its specific nature, as long as it does not identify itself with any particular form of scientific knowledge or with faith. Combining scientific and ideological aspects, it must at the same time necessarily have a certain orientation, expressing practical aspiration, the progressive tendency of its specific historical time. In other words, philosophy cannot be satisfied with the position of an abstract, dispassionate theory of the world, abstracted from the urgent vital tasks of humanity, its present and future development, and act in the form of some kind of always equal synthesis of its constituent elements. The dialectical and concrete historical nature of each philosophical synthesis requires such a specific and organic relationship between its various aspects, in which the priority of one of them is inevitable - scientific or value-based, ontological or anthropological, provided that this “tendentiousness” does not lead to the absolutization and fetishization of the defining factor and does not neutralize the opposite principle.

In the conditions of modern world development, which has brought to the forefront the tasks of preserving and establishing peace on Earth, humanistic and spiritually moral support for social, scientific and technological progress, the humanistic, worldview, and methodological functions of philosophy acquire paramount importance. In its own way and in a much deeper and broader sense than ever before, there is a need for philosophical justification and affirmation of the primacy of practical-spiritual activity over scientific-theoretical.

Being a general worldview theory of the world and man, philosophy does not limit itself to scientifically mastered reality, but turns to culture as a whole, to the most diverse forms of practical and spiritual human activity. It forms a whole system of ideas that determine the place and role of man in the world, develops and proclaims the most general norms and principles of human social and moral behavior, his scientific and theoretical activity. Hence the natural desire of philosophy to establish the ultimate foundations of man’s practical and theoretical relationship to reality, to determine his understanding of the meaning of human life and humanity, the nature and direction of the historical process, and truly moral behavior. Such ultimate foundations, of course, are closely related to one or another type of culture and are specific historical in nature. But at any given stage of history they cover all the main aspects of a person’s relationship to reality.

Philosophical Worldview, Thus, cannot be reduced to the Content of specific sciences or to generalizations obtained only on the basis of an analysis of scientific knowledge. As the self-consciousness of a certain historical era, it also comprehends and interprets the entire cumulative experience of human life, moral, ethical, religious practice, facts and phenomena of everyday individual and social existence, a person’s direct relationship to the world and to himself. But such an unlimited expansion of the field of philosophical analysis does not mean that the object of philosophy is directly what has already been mastered in scientific and any other form of social consciousness. The object of philosophy is not the object itself, as it is given in special science or ethics, but the way in which this object is given. For philosophical analysis, reality is not just a person and the world, but a theoretical and practical attitude to the world, a person’s way of orientation and life in the world. Here, an important function of philosophy is revealed, which consists in the fact that it compares the types of worldview and orientation given by science and value-practical forms of consciousness - morality, art, religion, everyday consciousness. Philosophy fixes the most general laws and principles not of this or that type of spiritual activity, but of spiritual activity in general; it is, therefore, also the methodology of scientific and any other knowledge. This uniqueness of philosophy is reflected in the search and identification of the ultimate foundations of human knowledge and activity, in the unique unity of its theoretical and methodological content.

Exactly this specific feature philosophy as a general worldview theory, the ultimate foundations of human practice allows for a comparison of various forms of spiritual and practical activity, scientific knowledge and value forms of consciousness, theoretical activity and social practice. Moreover, the task is not to unite these different spheres by some a priori, universal principle, but to find in each of them the elements and foundations of their commonality.

Analysis of value forms of consciousness reveals those real life and social foundations that necessitate mutual comparison of various forms of spiritual and practical human activity and determine the role and significance of each of them in the general philosophical worldview. It is on the basis of the “ultimate foundations” determined by philosophy, “eternal” philosophical questions about the meaning of life, the nature and purpose of man, about freedom, goodness and justice, about the fundamental orientation of man in the world and his relationship to specific historical forms of social life that philosophy correlates with moral, religious, aesthetic and legal consciousness in their non-institutionalized and unofficial form.

Philosophy not only provides a certain holistic understanding of the world, but also interprets social reality accordingly, thereby acting as a specific form of ideology. In other words, a strictly logical and scientific-theoretical justification of the laws and principles of philosophy demonstrates its scientific nature, and its value-worldview attitude to reality reveals in it a special form of ideology. Forms of consciousness, polar opposites in a number of concepts of Western philosophy, are in fact dialectically interconnected, existing, under certain conditions, in a state of fundamental mutual correspondence, when an ideologically expressed value approach not only does not contradict scientific objectivity, but becomes an important condition for it.