Topic 4-5. Sensation and perception
There is nothing in consciousness
which would not have been felt before.
Ernst Heine
Has it ever occurred to you to count the entire stock of knowledge about objects, phenomena, i.e. about everything that surrounds you? Even if someone willing to do so was found and did the calculations, he would be surprised that the stock of knowledge is so huge.
How do we gain knowledge about the world around us?
A person receives the very first knowledge about the world around us with the help of special mental processes - sensations and perceptions.
Sensations and perceptions are the main provider of knowledge. Thanks to them, a person distinguishes objects and phenomena by color, smell, taste, temperature, smoothness, size, volume and other characteristics.
Sensations and perceptions underlie more complex mental processes - thinking, memory, imagination.
Thanks to accumulated ideas obtained through sensations and perceptions, we learn to adapt and navigate the world around us.
Let's take one of the simplest examples. If we are lightly dressed and get caught in the rain without an umbrella, we return home in wet clothes, dirty, and cold. The lesson is not in vain - we remember our unpleasant sensations. The next time we are going to leave the house, we listen to the weather forecast and not only take an umbrella, but also put on a raincoat or jacket and appropriate shoes.
Sensations and perceptions are similar, but there are significant differences between them.
^ What are sensations?
ABOUT 
sensations arise from direct contact with an object. So, for example, we learn about the taste of an apple that we were treated to when we try it. It looks red and beautiful, but when you bite into it, it may turn out to be sour.
How did our favorite variety of apples come about? We tried different varieties, our feelings were summed up - this apple is sweet for some, sweet and sour for others, sour for others - I like it. However, there are people who love all apples.
^ Sensation is a mental process that occurs in a person when the sense organs are exposed to objects and phenomena, which consists of reflection (cognition) individual properties of these objects and phenomena. Underline the word “separate”.
All surrounding objects have many properties. Touch the desk. What do you feel? By touching, we gain knowledge not about the entire desk, but only about its individual properties - it is hard, dry, rough. Now look at the desk. What is she like? Through vision we can say that the desk is of a certain color, shape (gray, dirty, written on, rectangular, etc.). Knock on the desk. How do you feel? Through hearing we determine that the desk is wooden and makes a dull sound.
All these are examples of individual sensations through which we perceive the world. Remember: Through sensations we receive information not about the entire object, but only about its individual properties.
^ Mechanisms of sensations.
To make it even clearer what sensations are, let’s consider how this process occurs.
Have you heard the concept " analyzers"? This a complex nervous mechanism that produces a subtle analysis of the surrounding world, i.e. makes him stand out individual elements and properties. Each analyzer is designed to isolate and analyze certain information. The most famous analyzers in humans are: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile - according to the five basic senses.
Each analyzer has a specific structure:
1) receptors- sense organs (eye, ear, tongue, nose, skin, muscles);
2) conductor- nerve fibers from receptors to the brain;
3) central departments in the cerebral cortex.
How does the sensation happen? For example, we touched the desk. The receptors on the skin of the fingers received a signal, they transmit it through conductors to the cerebral cortex, where complex processing of the received information takes place (the sensation actually occurs) and the person receives the knowledge that the table is cold, rough, etc.
Or a hot iron... In the cerebral cortex, information is processed and an instant conclusion is made: it’s hot and painful. Immediately there is a reverse signal: withdraw your hand.
All analyzer departments work as a single unit. If one department is damaged, there is no sensation. For example, people born blind will never know the sensation of color.
We experience the world around us and communicate with each other using our senses: eyes, ears, nose, skin, tongue. Through these organs, information enters the brain, and we know where we are, what is happening around us, etc.
Think about how a person hears sounds? “I hear with my ears!” - you say, but this is an incomplete answer. A person hears with the help of the hearing organ, which is complex. The ear is only part of it.
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The concha, or outer ear, is a funnel with the help of which a person catches air vibrations. After passing through the auditory canal, they affect the eardrum. The vibrations of the membrane are transmitted to the auditory ossicles and reach the inner ear. Further along the nerves, the impulses reach the auditory center located in the cerebral cortex. Only with its help can we recognize sound signals.
This is how sensations arise. It is not without reason that the definition notes that sensations arise when surrounding objects and phenomena influence the analyzers (sense organs).
^ Types of sensations.
The sensations, as you already understand, are different. The main sensations associated with the five human senses are identified.
1. Visual sensations. Through them, a healthy person receives about 80% of information about the world around him - sensations of color and light.
What, thanks to visual sensations, can we say about the world around us?
Visual sensations help to navigate in space.
Colors affect people differently.
^ Red- excites, activates;
Orange- cheerful and cheerful, sociable;
Yellow- warm, invigorating, flirtatious, crafty;
^ Green- calm, cozy mood;
Blue- calm, serious, sad, induces mental work; if there is a lot of it, it causes coldness;
Violet- mysterious, a combination of red and blue: attracts and repels, excites and sad.
2. Auditory sensations. They occupy the second place in importance in a healthy person. The main purpose of a person is recognition of speech and other audio signals .
Speech, music and noise sensations are distinguished.
Loud noise has a negative impact on a person (on mental activity and the cardiovascular system).
Why do we need two ears? Maybe one would be enough? Two ears allow you to determine the direction of the sound source. If you close one ear, you will have to turn your head in all directions to determine where the sound is coming from.
The importance of hearing in a person’s life is very great. With the help of hearing, people receive information and communicate with each other.
The child hears the speech of adults, and at first simply recognizes the sounds, and then begins to imitate them. Little by little he learns to pronounce individual sounds and words, and then masters speech.
Rear 1. Use a simple experiment to see who has better hearing. To do this, you need to sit sideways to each other at a distance of about one and a half meters and close your eyes. The presenter brings his watch closer to you and away from you in turn. When you hear ticking, you say, “I hear it.” Having stopped hearing, “I don’t hear.”
3. Taste sensations. A person's tongue has taste buds that are responsible for four taste sensations . The tip of the tongue recognizes sweet sensations, the back surface of the tongue detects bitter sensations, and the sides of the tongue detect salty and sour sensations.
As a person becomes full, the role of taste sensations increases, but a hungry person will eat less tasty food.
Food consists of different components and causes complex taste sensations. When we eat, we feel heat, cold, and sometimes headaches due to changes in atmospheric pressure, all of which affects the taste of food. In addition, taste sensations are not perceived in their pure form; they are associated with olfactory sensations. Often what we think of as “taste” is actually a smell. For example, coffee, tea, tobacco, lemons stimulate the organ of smell more than the organ of taste.
4
. Olfactory sensations.
Responsible for odor recognition.
In modern man, they play a minor role in understanding the world, but they influence the emotional background and well-being of a person.
When vision and hearing are affected, the olfactory sensations become important.
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Legged animals, for example, a dog, live solely by smell. In our nose, the membrane of sensory cells responsible for the sense of smell occupies an area about the size of a fingernail on both sides. In a dog, if you straighten it, it will cover more than half of its body. A person’s weak sense of smell is compensated by the higher development of other senses.
By the way, when we simply breathe, a stream of air passes the membrane, and therefore we have to sniff - pass air over the membrane in order to smell it.
There are five main types of smell that we can detect: 1. floral; 2. spicy (lemon, apple), 3. putrid (rotten eggs, cheese), 4. burnt (coffee, cocoa), 5. ethereal (alcohol, camphor).
Why does a person need taste and smell sensations?
5. Tactile sensations - a combination of skin and motor sensations when feeling objects.
With their help, a small child learns about the world.
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for people without vision, this is one of the important means of orientation and cognition. For example, when reading, Braille is used. Deaf people, in order to understand what the interlocutor is saying to them, can recognize speech by the movement of the vocal cords (by placing the back of the hand on the speaker's neck).
Deaf-blind Elena Keller was able to fully exist in society through the tactile-motor learning system. She received an education, graduated from college, defended her dissertation, and held a government position in the employment of people with disabilities.
The sense of touch is associated with sensations of temperature, pain, pressure, humidity, etc.
These are the main types of sensations. ^ Others are also highlighted .
6. Organic - sensations of hunger, thirst, satiety, suffocation, abdominal pain, etc. Receptors for these sensations are located in the corresponding walls of the internal organs: esophagus, stomach, intestines.
IN 
We all know the feeling of hunger. But how do we know when we feel hungry? Hunger has nothing to do with an empty stomach, as many people think. After all, patients often, despite the lack of food in the stomach, do not want to eat.
Hunger occurs when there is a lack of certain nutrients in the blood. Then a signal is sent to the “hunger center” located in the brain - the work of the stomach and intestines is activated. This is why a hungry person often hears his stomach growling.
How long can you go without food? It depends on the individual. A very calm person may not eat for longer, since protein reserves in his body are consumed more slowly than those of an easily excitable person. The world record for the duration of fasting was claimed by a woman in South Africa, who, according to her, lived only on water for 102 days!
^ 7. Kinesthetic (motor) sensations - sensations of movement and position of body parts . Do a little experiment. Close your eyes and stand in some position: follow the command “at attention”, and then take the same position again. Think about which of the five senses helped you repeat the movement? It was a moving sensation , caused by irritation of receptors located in muscles, ligaments, and joints.
When walking, dancing, cycling, we feel a change in the speed or direction of our movement thanks to the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear.
8^ . Vibration sensations - occur when the surface of the body is exposed to air vibrations produced by moving or oscillating bodies��. They play an important role in the deaf and blind. With the help of these sensations, deaf-blind people learn about the approach of a vehicle or person by touching their lips talking man and by feeling their vibration, they can learn the alphabet and then speak.
Separately allocate subsensory (subthreshold) sensations. There is evidence that a person, using ordinary senses, can perceive stimuli that are beyond the lower threshold of his sensitivity, i.e. a person reacts not only to those signals that he is aware of, but also to those that he is not aware of. Premonition and foresight are built on this.
^ Examples from life:
1
. Pshonik conducted an experiment with his daughter in 1952. In the kitchen during breakfast, the daughter kept her finger on the button to which the current was connected. When the light came on, the current flowed, you had to have time to take your finger off the button. Over time, the girl, without the light bulb, withdrew her finger, reacting to subthreshold sensations. Together with the light bulb, Pshonik turned on a generator of high-frequency sounds that were not audible to the ear, the girl reacted to these sounds.
2. “25th frame.” The human eye consciously perceives 24 frames per second, and the video is based on this. An experiment was conducted: while watching a film in a cinema, the 25th frame with an advertisement was turned on: “Buy suspenders.” The human eye cannot consciously read this inscription, but the picture of the frame leaves an image on the retina. None of the viewers will say that they saw this inscription, but 15-20% of the viewers went to buy suspenders. This technique is prohibited.
^ The importance of developing sensations.
What happens if a person is deprived of many sensations from birth?
This person will develop more slowly and worse. It is not for nothing that blind children begin to walk and talk later.
Sensations are formed and developed as a result of practical actions and exercises. That's why it is necessary for the child to receive maximum amount various sensations (through games, toys, communication).
P 
Mowgli children serve as examples of the importance of early child development. So, in 1825, a young man of about twenty-two years old was found in a German city. He avoided people, bumped into objects, and did not respond to speech. Gradually he learned to speak and said that he lived in a cellar and remembered hands that sometimes appeared and gave bread and water. Once a week I woke up feeling washed and wearing new underwear. Then they took him to the outskirts and left him.
There are people who see only two colors or see 40 colors. Why does this difference depend? From human experience. For example, 5 thousand years ago The Egyptians saw only 6 colors. This was explained by the peculiarity of the colors of the landscape where they lived.
^ The sensations depend on the exercises. Every person has an innate ability to sense. Over the course of life, sensations transform and become more diverse. But for this they need to be developed. To make sensations more perfect, it is necessary to specifically exercise the senses.
Many professions require subtle sensations and, in turn, contribute to their development. For example, artists, musicians, dancers, foreign language teachers, construction workers musical instruments sensations are much higher than those of other people. The blind have excellent hearing, the deaf have excellent vision. The Germans often blinded their hunting dogs in one eye and one ear, which increased their sense of smell and vision.
This means that sensations can and should be improved.
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Measure the distance between the ends of the paperclip. This is your tactile sensitivity threshold. The lower this indicator, the higher the tactile sensitivity.
^ What is perception?
The second mental process, which is responsible for our primary knowledge of the world around us and is closely related to sensation, is perception.
^ Perception is a mental process that occurs in a person when the sense organs are exposed to objects and phenomena, which consists in holistic reflection (cognition) of these objects and phenomena. Underline the word “whole”.
TO 
As you already understand, sensations allow you to reflect and perceive only individual properties of objects: colors, shape, size, smoothness, sounds, temperature, etc. But we will not receive objects through sensations of a complete image. So, if you describe a lemon through sensations, it will be something yellow, sour, oblong, rough and nothing more. Perception allows us to “see” the holistic image of an object. During perception, the individual properties of objects are combined into a single image.
We see objects not only with our eyes, but also with our minds. Information about the world around us gradually accumulates in the brain - we have experience that is involved in the process of perception.
^ Perception is based on a person’s sensations and past experiences.
Look at the notebook and describe it. How will you create her image? From sensations of color, shape, volume, roughness. Why are you sure that this is a notebook and not a ball or a shirt? Only thanks to past experience. When perceiving familiar objects, recognition occurs immediately; a person only needs to combine 2-3 signs. For example, you have geranium at home, you know what it looks like. When you come to visit someone and see the same geranium, you will recognize it instantly. And next to standing plant you see it for the first time and wonder what it’s called.
^ Types of perceptions.
According to the action of the predominant analyzer, there are visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile perceptions. There are also more complex types of perception that arise as a result of the work of several analyzers.
1. Perception of objects. All types of sensations operate in the perception of objects. When we see an orange, we combine visual, gustatory, olfactory and tactile impressions. The perception of individual objects is a very complex process. We highlight the main features of an object, discard the unimportant ones, and then recognition of the object occurs. When perceiving familiar objects, recognition occurs quickly.
Every time we perceive, we form a visual image of an object. We call this object a word. Therefore, perception is closely related to speech. When we perceive an unfamiliar object, we try to establish its similarity to a familiar one.
For example, perceiving a watch and mentally calling it with this word, we are distracted from such unimportant features as the material from which the case is made, size, shape and highlight the main feature - the indication of time.
Does everything that surrounds a person fall into his field of perception? How does the choice of an object of perception occur?
2. Perception of space, those. the distance of objects from us and from each other, their shape and size . These perceptions are built on the basis of a combination of visual, auditory, skin and motor sensations.
Only accumulated experience gives us a correct idea of the size of objects. A person standing in a boat far from the shore appears much smaller than a person standing on the shore. But no one will say that one person is big and the other is small. We say: one person is close and the other is far from us.
By the strength of the sound of thunder, we determine the distance separating us from an approaching thunderstorm; using touch with our eyes closed, we can determine the shape of an object.
Thanks to the experience of perceptions, we form an idea of perspective. When we look at the rails going into the distance, we see that they converge on the horizon line. Our eyes see this, and our brain, therefore, our experience suggests that they do not converge anywhere. Children have no experience yet, they think that the rails converge, so they ask: what is there?
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. Perception of time.
Happening reflection of the duration and sequence of events,
happening in the world.
This is a very subjective process. The perception of the duration of time depends on what fills that time. Time periods filled with something pleasant are perceived as shorter. So it feels like a change always flies by instantly, and a boring lesson lasts a very long time. Depends on age: children perceive time as dragging on for a long time, while for adults, days and months fly by very quickly.
Why is it that when we feel good, time is perceived as passing quickly, and when we feel bad or bored - as dragging slowly?
There are people who always know what time it is. Such people have a well-developed sense of time. The sense of time is not innate, it develops as a result of accumulated experience.
Task 3 . Check who has a well-developed sense of time. Periodically, without looking at the clock, say what time it is; the one who guessed correctly more often (or was closer to the correct time) has an excellent sense of time.
4. Perception of movement. Happening reflection of changes in spatial relationships between the environment and the observer himself . It involves visual, auditory, muscle and other sensations. If an object moves in space, then we perceive its movement due to the fact that it leaves our field of best vision and forces us to move our eyes or head. If objects move towards us and we try to focus our gaze on them, our eyes converge at one point and the eye muscles tense. Thanks to this tension, we form an idea of distance.
By internal sensations we perceive the movements of our own body.
Perceiving the world, a person highlights something in it, but does not notice something at all. For example, during a lesson you can enthusiastically watch what is happening outside the window and absolutely not notice what the teacher is saying there. What a person highlights is item perception, and everything else is background . Sometimes they can change places.
Task 4 . Look at the image of the young woman half turned away. Can you immediately notice an old woman with a big nose and chin hidden in her collar?
The individual uniqueness of perception depends on the mental state of a person at the moment. If he is cheerful, cheerful, joyfully excited, then one perception; if he is scared, sad, angry, then it is completely different. Therefore, the perception of the same person, event, phenomenon different people so very different.
Thus, each perception includes not only sensations, but also a person’s past experience, his thoughts, emotions, i.e. Every perception is influenced by a person’s personality.
^ Illusions of perception.
Sometimes our senses and our perceptions let us down, as if deceiving us. Such “deceptions” of the senses are called illusions.
Vision is more susceptible to illusions than other senses. No wonder they say: “don’t believe your eyes”, “optical illusion”.
Light objects against a dark background appear enlarged compared to their actual size. A dark object appears smaller than a light object of the same size.
These illusions are explained by the fact that each light outline of an object is surrounded by a light border on the retina. It increases the size of the image. In general, everything Light objects seem larger to us than dark ones. In a dark dress, people appear thinner than in a light one.
When comparing two figures, one of which is smaller than the other, we mistakenly perceive all parts of the smaller figure as smaller, and all parts of the larger figure as larger. This is clearly visible in the figure: the upper segment in it seems longer than the lower one, although in fact they are equal.
Look at the picture, which shows lines - horizontal and vertical. Which ones are longer? You will say that the vertical ones are longer. This is a visual error. Lines of equal length. The horizontal ones are divided in half by the vertical ones and therefore it seems that they are shorter.
Artists, architects, and tailors are well aware of visual illusions. They use them in their work. For example, a tailor sews a dress from striped fabric. If he arranges the fabric so that the stripes are horizontal, then the woman in this dress will appear taller. And if you “lay” the stripes horizontally, the wearer of the dress will appear shorter and thicker.
Upside-down is a type of optical illusion when the nature of the perceived object depends on the direction of gaze. One of these illusions is the “duck hare”: the image can be interpreted as both an image of a duck and an image of a hare.
Sometimes illusions arise under the influence of strong emotions: For example, in fear a person can mistake one thing for another (a stump in the forest for an animal.)
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^ What do you see in the picture? |
There are illusions caused by the relationship between “figure” and “ground”. Looking at the drawing, we see first one figure, then another. These could be stairs going up or down, or two profiles changing to a drawing of a vase, etc.
Sometimes other senses deceive us.
If you eat a piece of lemon or herring and wash it down with tea with a little sugar, the first sip will seem very sweet.
An interesting phenomenon is experienced by astronauts. When weightlessness sets in, they experience the illusion of turning over. That is, they think they are upside down and feet up, although in fact their body is positioned correctly.
There are entire illusory works of art. They are a triumph of fine art over reality. Example: drawing "Waterfall" by Maurice Escher. The water circulates here endlessly; after the wheel rotates, it flows further and ends up back to the starting point. If such a structure could be built, then there would be a perpetual motion machine! But upon closer examination of the picture, we see that the artist is deceiving us, and any attempt to build this structure is doomed to failure.
Task 5. All people have illusions of perception. Ask your friends to look at these drawings, and they will create the same illusions as you.
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Which of the central more circles? |
Which of the vertical longer segments? |
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^ Are the lines parallel? |
How many legs does an elephant have? |
New concepts : perception, sensation, kinesthetic, organic, vibrational sensations, illusions of perception.
Test questions.
What is sensation and perception?
What are the similarities and differences between these processes?
What are the physiological mechanisms of sensations?
What types of sensations and perceptions do you know? What do they mean?
What role do sensations and perceptions play in our lives?
What are perceptual illusions? Give examples of illusions.
Describe what sensations make up the image of the perception of a pine tree.
Why do we notice dust on furniture and not feel the specks of dust that land on our face?
Choose the correct answer.
A) does not change; b) improves to a certain limit; c) improves without limit; d) gets worse.
9.2. The perception of objects most depends on:
A) on the quality of a person’s sensations and experience; b) on the temperament and character of a person; c) from the movement or rest of these objects; d) all answers are correct; d) all answers are incorrect.
Test tasks.
Literature
1. Rogov E.I. Psychology of cognition. - M.: Vlados, 2001.
2. Dubrovina I.V. and others. Psychology. - M.: Academy, 1999.
3. Yanovskaya L.V. Basics of psychology. - M.: World of Books, 2007.
4. Proshchitskaya E.N. Workshop on choosing a profession. - M.: Education, 1995.
Page 1
The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures called analyzers. The concept of an analyzer (a device that performs the function of distinguishing external stimuli) was introduced by Academician I.P. Pavlov. He also examined the structure of the analyzers and came to the conclusion that they consist of three parts:
1) peripheral section
Called a receptor (a receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, a specialized nerve ending, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2) nerve pathways
(afferent department - transmits excitation to the central department; efferent department - it transmits a response from the center to the periphery);
3) analyzer core– cortical sections of the analyzer (they are also called the central sections of the analyzers), in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs. The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that represents a projection of the periphery (i.e., a projection of the sensory organ) in the cerebral cortex, since certain receptors correspond to certain areas of the cortex.
Thus, the organ of sensation is the central section of the analyzer.
For sensation to occur, all components of the analyzer must be used. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. Thus, visual sensations cease when the eyes are damaged, when the integrity of the optic nerves is damaged, and when occipital lobes both hemispheres. In addition, for sensations to arise, 2 more conditions must be present:
· Sources of irritation (irritants).
· Medium or energy that is distributed in the environment from the source to the subject.
For example, in a vacuum there are no auditory sensations. In addition, the energy emitted by the source may be so small that a person does not feel it, but it can be registered by instruments. That. Energy, in order to become perceptible, must reach a certain threshold value of the analyzer system.
Also, the subject may be awake or asleep. This should also be taken into account. During sleep, the thresholds of analyzers increase significantly.
Thus, sensation is a mental phenomenon that is the result of the interaction of an energy source with the corresponding human analyzer. In this case, we mean an elementary single source of energy that creates a homogeneous sensation (of light, sound, etc.).
Five conditions must exist for sensations to occur:
· Receptors.
· Analyzer nucleus (in the cerebral cortex).
· Conducting pathways (with directions of impulse flows).
· Source of irritation.
· Environment or energy (from source to subject).
It should be noted that human sensations are a product of historical development, and therefore they are qualitatively different from the sensations of animals. In animals, the development of sensations is entirely limited by their biological, instinctive needs. In humans, the ability to feel is not limited by biological needs. Labor created in him an incomparably wider range of needs than in animals, and in activities aimed at satisfying these needs, human abilities were constantly developing, including the ability to feel. Therefore, a person can sense a much larger number of properties of the objects around him than an animal.
Sensations are not only the source of our knowledge about the world, but also our feelings and emotions. The simplest form of emotional experience is the so-called sensory, or emotional, tone of sensation, i.e. a feeling directly related to a sensation. For example, it is well known that some colors, sounds, smells can themselves, regardless of their meaning, memories and thoughts associated with them, cause us a pleasant or unpleasant feeling. The sound of a beautiful voice, the taste of an orange, the smell of a rose are pleasant and have a positive emotional tone. The creaking of a knife on glass, the smell of hydrogen sulfide, the taste of quinine are unpleasant and have a negative emotional tone. This kind of simple emotional experiences play a relatively insignificant role in the life of an adult, but from the point of view of the origin and development of emotions, their significance is very great.
The following functions of sensations are distinguished.
Signal
– notification of the body about vital objects or properties of the surrounding world.
Reflective (shaped)
– construction of a subjective image of a property necessary for orientation in the world.
Regulatory
– adaptation in the surrounding world, regulation of behavior and activity.
There are several theories of sensations.
Receptive.
According to this theory, the sensory organ (receptor) passively responds to stimuli. This passive response is the corresponding sensations, that is, a sensation is a purely mechanical imprint of an external influence in the corresponding sense organ. Currently, this theory is recognized as untenable, since the active nature of sensations is denied.
- INTRODUCTION -
All the information that a person receives in the process of cognition is obtained through sensory cognitive processes that arise during the direct interaction of the senses with environmental objects. Understanding the world around us begins with sensations. Sensation is the simplest cognitive process that ensures the functioning of all more complex processes. Sensations arise from the direct action of the properties and qualities of the external and internal environment on the senses. Information about the properties and qualities of objects and phenomena coming from the senses is reflected in our consciousness in the form of sensations and impressions.
Sensation is an elementary sensory cognitive process, reflecting in the form of perceptions the properties and qualities of objects that directly act on the senses. Sensation is a cognitive process, and perception is a form of reflection of a stimulus acting on the sense organs that has arisen in our consciousness. So, sensation is the process of converting information received by the senses into facts of consciousness. This information exists in our consciousness in the form of various perceptions: light, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and tactile.
Sensation as such is a rather complex mental phenomenon, as it seems at first glance. Despite the fact that this is a fairly studied phenomenon, the global nature of its role in the psychology of activity and cognitive processes is underestimated by humans. The sensations are widespread in ordinary life person, and in continuous process cognitive activity for people it is an ordinary, primary form of psychological connection between the body and the environment.
Partial or complete absence of types of sensation (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch) in a person prevents or inhibits his development.
Sensations are of great importance on the formation of such cognitive processes as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, attention and perception, as well as on the development of activity as a scientific type of human activity aimed at creating objects of material and spiritual culture, transforming one’s abilities, preserving and improving nature, and building society.
An object research - human sensations.
Item research - types of sensations.
The problem studies are various classifications of sensations in psychology.
Target work - analyze theoretical literature on the research problem, consider various types and classifications of sensations.
Tasks:
1. Give a general concept of sensations in psychology.
2. Consider the properties and functions of sensations.
3. Consider the classifications of types of sensations that exist in psychological science.
The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, an experimental part, a conclusion and a list of references.
The experimental part is devoted to visual sensations.
1. General concept of sensations and their functions in psychology
1.1 Concept of sensation
Sensations allow a person to perceive signals and reflect the properties and signs of things in the external world and states of the body. They connect a person with the outside world and are both the main source of knowledge and the main condition for his mental development.
Sensation is one of the simplest cognitive mental processes. The human body receives a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment in the form of sensations through the senses. Sensation is the most important connection between a person and the surrounding reality.
The process of sensation arises as a result of the influence on the sense organs of various material factors, which are called stimuli, and the process of this influence itself is called irritation.
Sensations arise on the basis of irritability. Sensation is a product of development in the phylogenesis of irritability. Irritability is the general property of all living bodies to come into a state of activity under the influence of external influences(pre-psychic level), i.e. directly affecting the life of the organism. Irritation causes excitation, which travels along centripetal, or afferent, nerves to the cerebral cortex, where sensations arise. At the early stage of development of living things, the simplest organisms (for example, the slipper ciliate) do not need to distinguish between specific objects for their life activity - irritability is sufficient. At a more complex stage, when a living person needs to identify any objects that he needs for life, and, consequently, the properties of this object as necessary for life, this is where the transformation of irritability into sensitivity occurs. Sensitivity is the ability to respond to neutral, indirect influences that do not affect the life of the body (example with a frog reacting to a rustle). The totality of feelings creates elementary mental processes, processes of mental reflection.
There are two main forms of sensitivity, of which one depends on environmental conditions and is called adaptation, and the other depends on the conditions of the body’s state, called sensitization.
Adaptation (adjustment, adjustment) is a change in sensitivity in the process of adapting to environmental conditions.
There are three directions:
1) increased sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus, for example, dark adaptation of the eye, when within 10-15 minutes. sensitivity increases by more than 200 thousand times (at first we do not see objects, but gradually we begin to distinguish their outlines);
2) a decrease in sensitivity under the influence of a strong stimulus, for example, for hearing this occurs in 20-30 seconds; with continuous and prolonged exposure to the stimulus, the corresponding receptors adapt to it, as a result of which the intensity of nervous excitations transmitted from the receptors to the cortex begins to decrease, which is the basis of adaptation.
3) complete disappearance of sensation as a result of prolonged exposure to the irritant, for example, after 1-1.5 minutes, a person stops feeling any smell in the room.
Adaptation is especially manifested in the spheres of vision, hearing, smell, touch, taste and indicates greater plasticity of the organism, its adaptation to environmental conditions.
Sensitization is an exacerbation of sensitivity due to changes internal state the body under the influence of stimuli that arrive at the same time to other sense organs (for example, an increase in visual acuity under the influence of weak auditory or olfactory stimuli).
1.2 Properties of sensations
All sensations can be characterized in terms of their properties. Moreover, the properties can be not only scientific, but also common to all types of sensations. The main properties of sensations include: quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization, absolute and relative thresholds of sensations (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. General properties of sensations
It should be borne in mind that very often, when they talk about the quality of sensations, they mean the modality of sensations, since it is the modality that reflects the main quality of the corresponding sensation.
The intensity of the sensation is its quantitative characteristic and depends on the strength of the current stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, if you have a runny nose, the intensity of perceived odors may be distorted.
The duration of a sensation is a temporary characteristic of the sensation that has arisen. It is also determined by the functional state of the sensory organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. It should be noted that sensations have a so-called latent (hidden) period. When a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. Latent period various types sensations are not the same. For example, for tactile sensations it is 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, and for taste - only 50 ms.
The sensation does not appear simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus and does not disappear simultaneously with the cessation of its effect. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect. A visual sensation, for example, has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the cessation of the action of the stimulus that caused it. (C) Information published on the site
The trace of the stimulus remains in the form of a consistent image. There are positive and negative sequential images. A positive sequential image corresponds to the initial irritation and consists in maintaining a trace of irritation of the same quality as the actual stimulus.
A negative sequential image consists in the emergence of a quality of sensation that is opposite to the quality of the stimulus that influenced it. (C) Information published on the site
For example, light-darkness, heaviness-lightness, warmth-cold, etc. The emergence of negative sequential images is explained by a decrease in the sensitivity of a given receptor to a certain influence.
And finally, sensations are characterized by the spatial localization of the stimulus. (C) Information published on the site
The analysis carried out by receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, i.e. we can tell where the light is coming from, where the heat is coming from, or what part of the body the stimulus is affecting.
All the properties described above, to one degree or another, reflect the qualitative characteristics of sensations. However, no less important are the quantitative parameters of the main characteristics of sensations - the degree (thresholds) of sensitivity (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Sensitivity thresholds
It should be remembered that the same stimulus for one person may be lower, and for another – higher than the threshold of sensation. The weaker the stimuli that a person is able to sense, the higher his sensitivity. In other words, the lower the absolute threshold of sensations, the higher the absolute sensitivity, and vice versa.
So, sensation is the simplest mental process of reflecting a separate quality (property) of an object under the direct influence of stimuli on the perceiving part of the analyzer.
1. 3 Physiological mechanisms of sensations
The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures called analyzers. The concept of an analyzer (a device that performs the function of distinguishing external stimuli) was introduced by Academician I.P. Pavlov. He also examined the structure of the analyzers and came to the conclusion that they consist of three parts:
1) Regional department, called a receptor (a receptor is the perceiving part of the analyzer, a socialized nerve ending, its main function is the transformation of external energy into a nervous process);
2) nerve pathways(afferent department - transmits excitation to the central department; efferent department - through it transmits the response from the center to the peripheral);
3) analyzer core- cortical sections of the analyzer (they are also called the central sections of the analyzers), in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs. The cortical part of each analyzer includes an area that represents a projection of the peripheral region (i.e., a projection of the sensory organ) in the cerebral cortex, since certain receptors correspond to certain areas of the cortex.
So, the organ of sensation is the central section of the analyzer.
For sensation to occur, all components of the analyzer must be used. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of the corresponding sensations becomes impossible. Thus, visual sensations cease when the eyes are damaged, when the integrity of the optic nerves is damaged, and when the occipital lobes of both hemispheres are destroyed. In addition, for sensations to arise, 2 more conditions must be present:
· Sources of irritation (irritants).
· Medium or energy that is distributed in the environment from the source to the subject.
For example, in a vacuum there are no auditory sensations. In addition, the energy emitted by the source may be so small that a person does not feel it, but it can be registered by instruments. That. Energy, in order to become perceptible, must reach a certain threshold value of the analyzer system.
Also, the subject may be awake or asleep. This should also be taken into account. During sleep, the thresholds of analyzers increase significantly.
So, sensation is a mental phenomenon that is the result of the interaction of an energy source with the corresponding human analyzer. In this case, we mean an elementary single source of energy that creates a homogeneous sensation (of light, sound, etc.).
Five conditions must exist for sensations to occur:
· Receptors.
· Analyzer nucleus (in the cerebral cortex).
· Conducting pathways (with directions of impulse flows).
· Source of irritation.
· Environment or energy (from source to subject).
It should be noted that human sensations are a product of historical development, and in this regard they are qualitatively different from the sensations of animals. In animals, the development of sensations is entirely limited by their biological, instinctive needs. In humans, the ability to feel is not limited by biological needs. Labor created in him an incomparably wider range of needs than in animals, and in activities aimed at satisfying these needs, human abilities were constantly developing, including the ability to feel. In this regard, a person can sense a much greater number of properties of the objects around him than an animal.
Sensations are not only the source of our knowledge about the world, but also our feelings and emotions. The simplest form of emotional expression is the so-called sensual, or emotional, tone of sensation, i.e. a feeling directly related to a sensation. For example, it is well known that some colors, sounds, smells can themselves, regardless of their meaning, memories and thoughts associated with them, cause us a pleasant or unpleasant feeling. The sound of a beautiful voice, the taste of alsina, the smell of roses are pleasant and have a positive emotional tone.
The creaking of a knife on glass, the smell of hydrogen sulfide, the taste of quinine are unpleasant and have a negative emotional tone.
This kind of simplest emotional conditions play a relatively insignificant role in the life of an adult, but from the point of view of the origin and development of emotions, their significance is very great.
The following functions of sensations are distinguished.
Signaling - notifying the body about vital objects or properties of the surrounding world.
Reflective (figurative) - construction of a subjective image of a property necessary for orientation in the world.
Regulatory - adaptation in the surrounding world, regulation of behavior and activity.
There are several theories of sensations.
Receptive. According to this theory, the sensory organ (receptor) passively responds to influencing stimuli. This passive response is the corresponding sensations, that is, sensation is a purely mechanical trace of external influence in the corresponding sense organ. Currently, this theory is recognized as untenable, since the active nature of sensations is denied.
Dialectical-materialistic.
According to this theory, “sensation is a real direct connection between consciousness and the external world, it is the transformation of the energy of external stimulation into a fact of consciousness” (V.L. Lenin).
Reflex.
Within the framework of the reflex concept of I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov conducted studies that showed that, according to its physiological mechanisms, sensation is an integral reflex that unites the peripheral and central sections of the analyzer through direct and feedback connections.
Sensations begin to develop immediately after birth. However, not all types of sensitivity develop equally. Immediately after birth, the child develops tactile, gustatory and olfactory sensitivity (the child reacts to the temperature of the environment, touch, pain; identifies the mother by the smell of mother's milk; distinguishes mother's milk from cow's milk or water). However, the development of these sensations continues for quite a long time (they are little developed at 4-5 years).
Visual and auditory sensations are less mature at the time of birth. Auditory sensations begin to develop faster (reacts to sound - in the first weeks of life, to direction - after two to three months, and to sound and music - in the third or fourth month). Speech hearing develops gradually. First, the child responds to the intonation of speech (in the second month), then to the rhythm, and the ability to distinguish sounds (first vowels, and then consonants) appears by the end of the first year of life.
Absolute sensitivity to light in an infant is low, but increases markedly in the first days of life. Color differentiation begins only in the fifth month.
In general, the absolute sensitivity of all types reaches high level development in the first year of life. Relative sensitivity develops more slowly (rapid development occurs at school age).
Sensations, within certain limits, can be developed through constant training. Thanks to the possibility of developing sensations, for example, children learn (music, drawing).
Among sensory disturbances, quantitative and qualitative changes are distinguished.
Quantitative disorders include: loss or decrease in the ability to perceive various types of stimuli and an increase in this ability. Loss of sensitivity usually extends to tactile, pain, and temperature sensitivity, but can also cover all types of sensitivity.
This is usually associated with various diseases of the individual. Synesthesia is a qualitative disorder of sensations. Another type of pathology of sensations manifests itself in various unpleasant sensations: numbness, tingling, burning, crawling, etc. With various pathological diseases there may be changes in pain sensitivity. They consist of different pain sensitivity and pain tolerance.
Individual differences in sensations are a little-studied area of psychology. It is known that the sensitivity of different sense organs depends on many factors. The features of the central nervous system(individuals with a strong nervous system have lower sensitivity); emotionality (emotional people have a more developed sense of smell); age (hearing acuity is greatest at 13 years old, visual acuity at 20-30 years old, old people hear low-frequency sounds quite well, and high-frequency sounds worse); gender (women are more sensitive to high sounds, and men - to low sounds); the nature of the activity (steelworkers distinguish the subtlest shades of a red-hot flow of metal, etc.).
2. Classification of types of sensations
Exist different approaches to the classification of sensations. It has long been customary to distinguish between five (based on the number of sense organs) main types of sensations: smell, taste, touch, vision and hearing. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. B.G. Ananyev spoke about eleven types of sensations. A.R. Luria believed that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles - systematic and genetic (in other words, according to the principle of modality, on the one hand, and according to the principle of complexity or level of their construction, on the other).
Let's consider a systematic classification of sensations (Fig. 3). This classification was proposed by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. Considering the largest and most significant groups of sensations, he divided them into three main types: interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive sensations. The first combine signals reaching us from the internal environment of the body; the latter provide information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, ensuring the regulation of our movements; finally, still others ensure the receipt of signals from the external world and create the basis for our conscious behavior. Let's consider the main types of sensations separately.
The basis of perception are exteroceptors, since they provide an objective view of the external world.
As you know, a person has five senses. There are one more types of external sensations, since motor skills do not have a separate sensory organ, but they also cause sensations. Consequently, a person can experience six types of external sensations: visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile (tactile), gustatory and kinesthetic sensations.
Rice. 3. Systematic classification of the main types of sensations The main source of information about the external world is the visual analyzer. With its help, a person receives up to 80% of the total amount of information. The organ of visual sensation is the eye. At the level of sensations, he perceives information about light and color. Colors perceived by humans are divided into chromatic and achromatic. The first ones include the colors that make up the spectrum of the rainbow (i.e., the splitting of light - the well-known “Every hunter wants to know where the pheasant sits”). The second ones are black, white and gray colors. Color shades, containing about 150 smooth transitions from one to another, are perceived by the eye depending on the parameters of the light wave. Visual sensations have a great influence on a person. All warm colors have a positive effect on a person’s performance, excite him and cause a good mood. Cool colors calm a person. Dark colors have a depressing effect on the psyche. Colors can carry warning information: red indicates danger, yellow warns, green signals safety, etc. The next most important in receiving information is the auditory analyzer. The sensations of sounds are usually divided into musical and noise. Their difference is that musical sounds are created by periodic rhythmic vibrations of sound waves, and noises are created by non-rhythmic and irregular vibrations. Auditory sensations are also of great importance in human life. The source of auditory sensations is a variety of sounds acting on the organ of hearing. Auditory sensations reflect noise, musical and speech sounds. Sensations of noise and rustling signal the presence of objects and phenomena that produce sounds, their location, approach or distance. They can warn of danger and cause a certain emotional distress. Musical sensations are characterized by emotional tone and melody. These sensations are formed in a person on the basis of the education and development of musical ear and are associated with the general musical culture of human society. Speech sensations are the sensory basis of human speech activity. On the basis of speech sensations, phonemic hearing is formed, thanks to which a person can distinguish and pronounce speech sounds. Phonemic hearing influences not only the development of oral and written speech, but also the acquisition of a foreign language. Many people have an interesting feature - a combination of sound and visual sensations into one general sensation. In psychology, this phenomenon is called synesthesia. These are stable associations that arise between objects of auditory perception, such as melodies, and color sensations. Often people can tell “what color” a given melody or word is. Synesthesia, based on the association of color and smell, is somewhat less common. It is often characteristic of people with a developed sense of smell. Such people can be found among perfume tasters - not only a developed olfactory analyzer is important for them, but also synesthetic associations that allow Difficult language scents should be transformed into a more universal language of color. In general, the olfactory analyzer, unfortunately, is most often not very well developed in people. People like the hero of Patrick Suskind's novel “Perfume” are a rare and unique phenomenon. The sense of smell is a type of sensitivity that gives rise to the scientific sensations of smell. This is one of the most ancient, simple, but vital sensations. Anatomically, the organ of smell is located in most living creatures in the most advantageous place - in the middle, in a prominent part of the body. The path from the olfactory receptors to those brain structures where the impulses received from them are received and processed is the shortest. Nerve fibers extending from the olfactory receptors directly, without intermediate connections, enter the brain. The part of the brain, which is called the olfactory part, is also the most ancient, and the lower a living creature is on the evolutionary ladder, the more space in the mass of the brain it occupies. In fish, for example, the olfactory brain covers almost the entire surface of the hemispheres, in dogs - about one third, in humans its relative share in the volume of all brain structures is approximately one twentieth. These differences correspond to the development of other sense organs and the vital importance that This type of sensation exists for living beings. For some animal species, the importance of smell goes beyond the perception of smells. In insects and great apes, the sense of smell also serves as a means of intraspecific communication. The odor classification system known as the “Henning Prism” (floral, fruity, spicy, resinous, burnt, putrid) forms the corners of a prism with intermediate qualities located on the planes (Fig. 4 ).Rice. 4. “Henning Prism” There are other classifications. In practice, a comparison of a given smell with a known standard (lilac, hay, etc.) is often used. Taste sensations are a reflection of the quality of food, providing the individual with information about whether a given substance can be ingested. The sense of taste (often together with the sense of smell) is caused by the action of the chemical properties of substances dissolved in saliva or water on taste buds (taste buds) located on the surface of the tongue, the back of the pharynx, the palate and the epiglottis. The taste classification system is represented by the “Hanning Tetrahedron” ( Fig. 5), in which there are four main tastes (sweet, sour, salty, bitter). Sweet Salty Fig. 5. “Hanning Tetrahedron” They are located in the corners of the tetrahedron (quadrangular pyramid), and all other taste sensations are located on the planes of the Tetrahedron and represent them as combinations of two or more basic taste sensations. Cutaneous sensitivity, or touch, is the most widely represented and common type of sensitivity. The familiar sensation that occurs when an object touches the surface of the skin is not an elementary tactile sensation. It is the result of a complex combination of four other, simpler types of sensations: pressure, pain, heat and cold, and for each of them there is a specific type of receptors, unevenly located in various areas skin surface. The presence of such receptors can be found on almost all areas of the skin. However, the specialization of skin receptors has not yet been accurately established. It is unclear whether there are receptors exclusively designed to perceive one influence, generating differentiated sensations of pressure, pain, cold or heat, or whether the quality of the resulting sensation may vary depending on the state of the same receptor, as well as on the nature of the property affecting it. It is only known that the strength and quality of skin sensations themselves are relative. For example, when simultaneously affecting the surface of one area of skin warm water its temperature is perceived differently depending on what kind of water we apply to the adjacent area of the skin. If it is cold, then on the first part of the skin there is a feeling of warmth, if it is hot, then a feeling of cold. Temperature receptors, as a rule, have two threshold values: they respond to high and low magnitude impacts, but do not respond to medium ones. Using the examples of kinesthetic sensations and feelings of balance, we can confirm the fact that not all sensations are conscious. In everyday speech that we use, there is no word that denotes sensations coming, for example, from receptors located in the muscles and working when they contract or stretch. Nevertheless, these sensations still exist, providing control of movements, assessment of the direction and speed of movement, and the magnitude of the distance. They are formed automatically, enter the brain and regulate movements on subconscious level. To designate them in science, a word has been adopted that comes from the concept of “movement” - kinetics, and in this regard they are called kinesthetic. Without sensations of this kind, we would experience great difficulties associated with the simultaneous coordination of movements of various parts of the body, maintaining posture, balance, control of various involuntary movements (unconditioned reflex reactions, skills, etc.), because they all include motor moments that are performed automatically and very quickly. In addition to muscles, receptors for kinesthetic sensations are located in other organs. For example, the formation of sensations that help maintain and maintain balance occurs due to the presence of special balance receptors present in the inner ear. The feeling of acceleration or deceleration of movements depends on the work of these receptors. There is evidence that with the help of ordinary senses a person perceives stimuli that are beyond the lower threshold of his sensitivity. These stimuli (they are called subsensory) can even influence conscious sensations. This proves the existence of human sensitivity to stimuli that are not consciously felt. With the help of such sensitivity, we clarify, for example, the localization of sound. Physiologist G.V. Gershuni, in particular, writes that “immediately after a contusion, when auditory sensations are either completely absent or appear only when exposed to very strong sounds, such body responses occur as a change in the spontaneous electrical activity of the cerebral cortex - the appearance of rhythms more high frequencies ... a change in the potential difference of the skin (galvanic skin reaction) and the cochlear-pupillary reflex - a change in the diameter of the pupil under the influence of sound.” The zone of inaudible sounds that cause the cochlear-pupillary reflex was called by Gershuni the “subsensory region.” During the stages of gradual hearing restoration, this zone increases, and with complete normalization it decreases. Other involuntary reactions recorded during the pathological process behave in a similar way. Normally, the limits of the subsensory area significantly depend on the state of the person and for the cochlear-pupillary reflex range from 5 to 12 dB. The entire group of exteroceptive sensations is conventionally divided into two subgroups: contact and distant sensations. Contact sensations are caused by the direct impact of an object on the sense organs . Examples of contact sensations are taste and touch. Distant sensations reflect the qualities of objects located at some distance from the sense organs. These senses include hearing and vision. It should be noted that the sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations, since formally olfactory sensations arise at a distance from the object, but at the same time, the molecules characterizing the smell of the object, with which the olfactory receptor comes into contact, undoubtedly belong to this item. This is the duality of the position occupied by the sense of smell in the classification of sensations. Since a sensation arises as a result of the influence of a certain physical stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the primary classification of sensations, which we have considered, proceeds, naturally, from the type of receptor that gives the sensation of a given quality, or “ modality." However, there are sensations that cannot be associated with any specific modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include, for example, vibration sensitivity, which connects the tactile-motor sphere with the auditory sphere. The sensation of vibration is sensitivity to vibrations caused by a moving body. According to most researchers, the vibration sense is an intermediate, transitional form between tactile and auditory sensitivity. In particular, some authors believe that tactile-vibration sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. With normal hearing, it does not appear particularly prominent, but with damage to the auditory organ, this function is clearly manifested. Vibration sensitivity acquires particular practical importance in cases of damage to vision and hearing. It plays a big role in the lives of deaf and deaf-blind people. Deaf-blind people, thanks to the high development of vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other types of transport at a great distance. In the same way, through the vibration sense, deaf-blind people recognize when someone enters their room. Consequently, sensations, being the simplest type of mental processes, are in fact very complex and have not been fully studied. Interoceptive sensations - combine signals reaching us from the internal environment of the body, sensitivity to its own metabolic processes (hunger, thirst, suffocation, etc.). Usually they are confined to the subsensory (unconscious) subcortical level and are recognized only in the event of a significant disruption of the normal state of the body, a violation of the necessary constancy of its internal environment (homeostasis). They arise due to receptors located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, heart and circulatory system and other internal organs. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensations and always retain their proximity to emotional states. It should also be noted that interoceptive sensations are often called organic. Proprioceptive sensations (“deep sensitivity”) are sensations that convey information about the position of the body in space and the position of the musculoskeletal system, ensure the regulation of our movements. These sensations create the basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. This group of sensations includes the feeling of balance, or static sensation, as well as motor, or kinesthetic, sensation. Peripheral receptors for this sensitivity are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and are called Paccini corpuscles. Peripheral receptors for the sensation of balance are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear. It should be noted that there are other approaches to the classification of sensations. An attempt to create a genetic classification of sensations was made by the English neurologist H. Head, who identified the more ancient - protopathic and younger - epicritic sensitivity. Protopathic sensations (Greek protos - first, primary, pathos - illness, suffering) - phylogenetically these are more ancient sensations, primitive and undifferentiated, mixed with emotions and localized. More often this concept is used in relation to skin sensitivity. This includes organic sensations (hunger, thirst, etc.). Epicritic sensations (Greek Epikrisis - judgment, decision) - phylogenetically new sensations. They are characterized by a lower threshold of irritation, the ability to sense light touches, precise localization of external irritation, and more perfect recognition of the quality of the external stimulus. (C) Information published on the siteThese include all the main types of human sensations. Types of sensations are classified according to modality, location of receptors, and contact with the stimulus. - Conclusion -
The vital role of sensations is to promptly and quickly convey to the central nervous system, as the main organ of activity control, information about the state of the external and internal environment, the presence of biologically significant factors in it.
The life of every person is complex and multifaceted. It is revealed through a number of important processes. They can be divided into social and business activity individual, culture, medicine, sports, communication, interpersonal relationships, scientific and research activities, entertainment and recreation.
The full course of all the above processes is problematic, and sometimes even impossible to imagine without the involvement of all our senses. In this regard, it is necessary to evaluate the role of sensations in a person’s life, since sometimes this knowledge helps in organizing the prosperous existence of an individual in society and achieving success in a business environment.
So, sensation is the process of reflecting individual properties of objects in the objective world, both the external environment and one’s own body, arising from their direct impact on receptors (sense organs). This is a process of primary information processing, characteristic of both animals and humans. With the help of sensations, the subject reflects light, color, sounds, noises, heat, cold, smells, tastes. Sensations are a prerequisite for the creation of images and their cognition.
There are several classifications of types of sensations. According to modality (types of analyzers), sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, tactile (tactile, temperature and pain), olfactory and gustatory. Intermodal sensations are also distinguished.
The classification of sensations based on the nature of reflection and location of receptors was presented by the English physiologist C. Sherrington. Based on the anatomical location of the receptors, sensations are divided into three classes: interoceptive (receptors are located in the internal environment of the body), proprioceptive (receptors are located in the muscles, tendons and joint capsules) and exteroceptive (receptors are located on the surface of the body). Exteroceptive ones include: contact (taste, touch) and distant (smell, hearing, vision). A.R. Luria supplements the final series with two categories: intermodal (intermediate) and non-digital types of sensations.
By origin (genetic classification by X. Head) they distinguish: protopathic and epicritic sensations.
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The physiological basis of sensations is the activity of complex complexes of anatomical structures, called Pavlov's analyzers; each analyzer consists of 3 parts. 1. peripheral section - receptors. Receptor – the perceiving part of the analyzer, its main function is to transform external energy into a nerve impulse. 2. conducting nerve pathways - (centripetal, centrifugal, afferent) 3. cortical sections of the analyzer, in which the processing of nerve impulses coming from peripheral sections occurs. For sensation to arise, it is necessary to use all the components of the analyzer. If any part of the analyzer is destroyed, the occurrence of sensation becomes impossible (visual sensation stops if the eye is damaged.) Analyzer- an active organ that reflexively rearranges itself under the influence of stimuli, so sensation is not a passive process, but always includes motor components. Thus, the American psychologist Neff, observing areas of the skin with a microscope, became convinced that when they are irritated with a needle, the moment the sensation occurs is accompanied by a reflex-motor reaction of this area of the skin.
12 Classification of sensations
There are different approaches to the classification of sensations. It has long been customary to distinguish 5 main types (based on the number of sense organs): smell, taste, touch, vision, hearing. This classification according to its main modalities is correct, although not exhaustive. For example, Ananyev spoke about 11 types of sensations. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to at least two basic principles: systematic, genetic (by the principle of modality on the one hand and by the principle of complexity or level of their structure on the other hand). A systematic classification was proposed by English physiologists Sherrington. SYSTEMATIC Classification of the main types of sensations Exteroceptive– are the largest group . sensations. They bring it to people's attention. information from the outside world and are the main group. sensations that connect people. with the external environment. Whole gr. These sensations are conventionally divided into 2 subgroups. contact and remote. Contact – are caused directly by the impact of an object on the senses. Contact are taste and touch. Distant – reflect the quality of an object that is located at a certain distance from the senses. These sensations include hearing and vision. It should be noted that the sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant ones, since formally the olfactory sensation occurs at a distance from the object, but at the same time the molecules characterizing the smell of the object with which the olfactory receptor is in contact , undoubtedly belong to this subject. This is the duality of the position that marks the olfactory sensation. Since sensation arises as a result of the action of a certain physical stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the primary classification of sensations comes, naturally, from the receptor that gives sensations of a given quality or modality. INTEROCEPTIVE– organic (sensation of pain) - combine signals that reach us from the internal processes of the body; they arise thanks to receptors that are located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, the heart and blood vessels, and other internal organs. Receptors that perceive information about the state of internal organs are called internal receptors. PROPRIOCEPTIVE – transmit signals about the position of the body in space and form the afferent basis of human movements. They play a decisive role in their regulation. The described group of sensations includes the sensation of balance (stomatic sensations) and movement (kinesthetic sensations). Receptors for these sensations are located in muscles, joints, tendons and are called Paccini corpuscles. Peripheral receptors of this group. sensations are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which are responsible for balance. In addition to systematic, there is genetic classification. It was suggested by the English neuropathologist Head. Genetic classification allows us to distinguish 2 types of sensitivity: protatapic– which includes organic feelings: thirst, hunger, etc. epicritic– main types of sensations.
Human life requires an active study of the objective laws of the surrounding reality. Understanding the world and building an image of this world are necessary for a full orientation in it, for a person to achieve his own goals. Knowledge of the surrounding world is included in all spheres of human activity and the main forms of its activity.
In knowledge, it is customary to distinguish two levels: sensory and rational. The first level includes cognition through the senses. In the process of sensory cognition, a person develops an image, a picture of the surrounding world in its immediate reality and diversity. Sensory cognition is represented by sensations and perceptions. In rational knowledge, a person goes beyond the limits of sensory perception, reveals the essential properties, connections and relationships between objects of the surrounding world. Rational knowledge of the surrounding world is carried out thanks to thinking, memory and imagination.
Sensation is a process of primary information processing, which is a reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena that arise when they directly impact the sense organs, as well as a reflection of the internal properties of the body. Sensation performs the function of orienting the subject in individual, most elementary properties objective world.
Sensations are the simplest form of mental activity. They arise as a reflex reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. The analyzer consists of three parts:
Peripheral section (receptor), transforming external energy into a nervous process;
Conducting nerve pathways connecting the peripheral parts of the analyzer with its center: afferent (directed to the center) and efferent (going to the periphery);
The subcortical and cortical sections of the analyzer, where the processing of nerve impulses coming from the peripheral sections occurs.
The cells of the peripheral parts of the analyzer correspond to certain areas of cortical cells. Numerous experiments make it possible to clearly establish the localization in the cortex of certain types of sensitivity. The visual analyzer is represented mainly in the occipital zones of the cortex, the auditory one - in the temporal zones, tactile-motor sensitivity is localized in the posterior central gyrus, etc.
For sensation to occur, the entire analyzer must operate. The impact of an irritant on the receptor causes irritation. The beginning of this irritation is expressed in the transformation of external energy into a nervous process, which is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process reaches the cortical part of the analyzer along afferent pathways, as a result of which the body’s response to irritation occurs - a person feels light, sound or other qualities of the stimulus. At the same time, the influence of the external or internal environment on the peripheral part of the analyzer causes a response that is transmitted along the efferent pathways and leads to the pupil dilating or contracting, the gaze being directed to the object, the hand withdrawing from the hot object, etc. The entire path described is called the reflex hoof. The interconnection of the elements of the reflex ring creates the basis for the orientation of a complex organism in the surrounding world, ensures the activity of the organism in different conditions his existence.
6.2.Types and properties of sensations.
Since the time of Aristotle, many generations of scientists have focused on only five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In the 19th century knowledge about the composition of sensations has expanded dramatically. This occurred as a result of the description and study of their new types - vestibular, vibrational, muscular-articular, or kinesthetic, etc. - as well as as a result of clarifying the composition of some complex types of sensations (for example, the scientific awareness of the fact that touch is a combination of tactile, temperature, pain sensations and kinesthesia, and in tactile sensations, in turn, one can distinguish the sensations of touch and pressure). The increase in the number of types of sensations has necessitated their classification.
There are several attempts to classify sensations according to different bases and principles. The classification proposed by the English physiologist Charles Sherrington is considered the most successful and thoughtful. The basis for this classification was the nature of the reflections and the location of the receptors. Charles Sherrington identified three types of receptive fields: interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive.
Interoceptive receptors are located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflect the state of the internal organs. These are the most ancient and most elementary sensations, however, they are very important as signals about the state of our body. Proprioceptors are found in muscles, ligaments and tendons. They supply information about the movements and position of our body in space, and individual parts of the body relative to each other. These sensations play a critical role in the regulation of movement.
The exteroceptive receptive field coincides with the outer surface of the body and is completely open to external influences. Exteroceptors represent the largest group of sensations. Charles Sherrington divided them into contact and distance. Contact receptors (touch, including tactile, temperature and pain sensations, as well as taste buds) transmit irritation through direct contact with objects affecting them. Distant sensations (smell, hearing, vision) occur when a stimulus acts from a certain distance. In the process of evolution, it is distant exteroceptive sensations that begin to play an increasingly important role in cognition of the surrounding world and in the organization of behavior, since they provide an important advantage, allowing us to obtain the necessary information about changes in the environment in advance and respond to them.
From the point of view of modern science, the division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) proposed by Charles Sherrington is not enough. Some types of sensations - for example, temperature and pain, taste and vibration, muscle-articular and static-dynamic receptors - can be considered external-internal.
Sensations are a form of reflection of adequate stimuli. For example, visual sensations arise when exposed to electromagnetic waves length in the range from 380 to 780 millimicrons, auditory sensations - when exposed to mechanical vibrations with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 Hz, volume from 16-18 to 120 decibels, tactile sensations are caused by the action of mechanical stimuli on the surface of the skin, vibration sensations are generated by the vibration of objects. Other sensations (temperature, olfactory, taste) also have their own specific stimuli. Closely related to the adequacy of the stimulus is the limitation of sensations, due to the structural features of the sense organs. The human ear cannot detect ultrasound, although some animals, such as dolphins, have this ability. Human eyes are sensitive to only a small part of the spectrum. A significant part of physical influences that do not have vital significance are not perceived by us. To perceive radiation and some other influences found on Earth in their pure form and in quantities that threaten human life, we simply do not have sense organs.
The general properties of sensations include their quality, intensity, duration and spatial localization. Qualities are specific features of a given sensation that distinguish it from other types. For example, auditory sensations differ in timbre, pitch, volume; visual - by saturation and color tone; taste - by modality (taste can be sweet, salty, sour and bitter).
The duration of a sensation is its temporal characteristic. It is largely determined by the functional state of the sense organs, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. It must be borne in mind that when a stimulus acts on a sense organ, the sensation does not arise immediately, but after some time, which is called the latent period. The latent period for different types of sensations is not the same: for tactile sensations, for example, it is 130 milliseconds, for pain - 370 milliseconds, taste sensations arise 50 milliseconds after applying a chemical irritant to the surface of the tongue. Just as a sensation does not arise simultaneously with the onset of the stimulus, it does not disappear with the cessation of the latter. This inertia of sensations manifests itself in the so-called aftereffect.
The spatial localization of the stimulus also determines the nature of the sensations. Spatial analysis, carried out by distant receptors, provides information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations correspond to the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. At the same time, the localization of pain sensations can be more diffuse and less accurate than tactile ones.
6.3. Sensitivity and its changes.
Various sense organs that give us information about the state of the world around us may be more or less sensitive to the phenomena they display, i.e. may reflect these phenomena with greater or less accuracy. The sensitivity of the senses is determined by the minimal stimulus that, under given conditions, is capable of causing sensation.
The minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. Stimuli of lesser strength, so-called subthreshold, do not cause sensations. The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensitivity of this analyzer. There is an inverse relationship between absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity of a given analyzer. This relationship can be expressed by the formula E = 1/P, where E is sensitivity, P is the threshold value.
Analyzers have different sensitivities. Humans have very high sensitivity visual and auditory analyzers. As S.I. Vavilov’s experiments have shown, the human eye is capable of seeing light when only 2-8 quanta of radiant energy hit its retina. This allows you to see a burning candle on a dark night at a distance of up to 27 km. The auditory cells of the inner ear detect movements whose amplitude is less than 1% of the diameter of a hydrogen molecule. Thanks to this, we hear the ticking of a clock in complete silence at a distance of up to 6 m. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding odorous substances does not exceed 8 molecules. This is enough to smell one drop of perfume in a room of 6 rooms. It takes at least 25,000 times more molecules to produce the sensation of taste than to create the sensation of smell. In this case, the presence of sugar is felt in a solution of one teaspoon per 8 liters of water.
The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer is limited not only by the lower, but also by the upper sensitivity threshold, i.e. the maximum strength of the stimulus, at which a sensation adequate to the current stimulus still arises. A further increase in the strength of stimuli acting on the receptors causes only painful sensations in them (such an effect is exerted, for example, by super-loud sound and blinding brightness). The magnitude of absolute thresholds depends on the nature of the activity, age, functional state of the body, strength and duration of irritation.
In addition to the magnitude of the absolute threshold, sensations are characterized by an indicator of the relative, or differential threshold. The minimum difference between two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensation is called the discrimination threshold, difference or differential threshold. The German physiologist E. Weber, testing a person’s ability to determine the heavier of two objects in the right and left hand, established that differential sensitivity is relative, not absolute. This means that the ratio of the barely noticeable difference to the magnitude of the original stimulus is a constant value. The greater the intensity of the original stimulus, the more it must be increased to notice a difference, i.e. the greater the magnitude of the subtle difference.
The differential threshold of sensations for the same organ is a constant value and is expressed by the following formula: dJ/J = C, where J is the initial value of the stimulus, dJ is its increase, causing a barely noticeable sensation of a change in the magnitude of the stimulus, and C is a constant. The value of the differential threshold for different modalities is not the same: for vision it is approximately 1/100, for hearing it is 1/10, for tactile sensations it is 1/30. The law embodied in the above formula is called the Bouguer-Weber law. It must be emphasized that this is only valid for mid-ranges.
Based on Weber's experimental data, the German physicist G. Fechner expressed the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the strength of the stimulus with the following formula: E = k*logJ + C, where E is the magnitude of sensations, J is the strength of the stimulus, k and C are constants. According to the Weber-Fechner law, the magnitude of sensations is directly proportional to the logarithm of the intensity of the stimulus. In other words, the sensation changes much more slowly than the strength of irritation increases. An increase in the strength of stimulation in geometric progression corresponds to an increase in sensation in arithmetic progression.
The sensitivity of analyzers, determined by the magnitude of absolute thresholds, changes under the influence of physiological and psychological conditions. A change in the sensitivity of the senses under the influence of a stimulus is called sensory adaptation. There are three types of this phenomenon.
Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation during the prolonged action of a stimulus. A common fact is the distinct disappearance of olfactory sensations soon after we enter a room with an unpleasant odor. However, complete visual adaptation up to the disappearance of sensations does not occur under the influence of a constant and motionless stimulus. This is explained by compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to the movement of the eyes themselves. Constant voluntary and involuntary movements of the receptor apparatus provide continuity and variability of sensations. Experiments in which conditions were artificially created to stabilize the image relative to the retina (the image was placed on a special suction cup and moved with the eye) showed that the visual sensation disappeared after 2-3 s.
Negative adaptation is a dulling of sensations under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, when we enter a brightly lit space from a dimly lit room, at first we are blinded and are unable to discern any details around us. After some time, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer sharply decreases and we begin to see. Another variant of negative adaptation is observed when the hand is immersed in cold water: in the first moments a strong cold stimulus acts, and then the intensity of the sensations decreases.
Positive adaptation is an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. In the visual analyzer, this is a dark adaptation, when the sensitivity of the eyes increases under the influence of being in the dark. A similar form of auditory adaptation is adaptation to silence.
The intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptor, but also on the stimuli currently affecting other sense organs. A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of other senses is called the interaction of sensations. It can be expressed in both increased and decreased sensitivity. General pattern consists in the fact that weak stimuli acting on one analyzer increase the sensitivity of another and, conversely, strong stimuli reduce the sensitivity of other analyzers when they interact. For example, accompanying the reading of a book with quiet, calm music, we increase the sensitivity and receptivity of the visual analyzer; Too loud music, on the contrary, helps to lower them.
Increased sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called sensitization. The possibilities for training the senses and improving them are very great. There are two areas that determine increased sensitivity of the senses:
sensitization, which spontaneously results from the need to compensate for sensory defects: blindness, deafness. For example, some people who are deaf develop vibration sensitivity so strongly that they can even listen to music.
sensitization caused by activity, specific requirements of the profession. For example, the olfactory and gustatory sensations of tasters of tea, cheese, wine, tobacco, etc. reach a high degree of perfection.
6.4.Properties and types of perception.
Mental processes are based on perception.
Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects, phenomena, integral situations of the objective world with their direct impact on the senses. In contrast to sensations, in the processes of perception (of a situation, a person), a holistic image of an object is formed, which is called a perceptual image. The image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.
The main properties of perception as a perceptual activity are its objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, selectivity and meaningfulness.
The objectivity of perception is manifested in the attribution of images of perception to certain objects or phenomena of objective reality. Objectivity as a quality of perception plays an important role in the regulation of behavior. We define objects not by their appearance, but by how we use them in practice.
The integrity of perception lies in the fact that images of perception are holistic, complete, objectively shaped structures.
Thanks to the structure of perception, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world appear before us in the totality of their stable connections and relationships. For example, a certain melody played on different instruments and in different tones, is perceived by the subject as one and the same, stands out to him as an integral structure.
Constancy - ensures the relative constancy of the perception of the shape, size and color of an object, regardless of changes in its conditions. For example, the image of an object (including on the retina) increases when the distance to it decreases, and vice versa. However, the perceived size of the object remains unchanged. People who constantly live in a dense forest are distinguished by the fact that they have never seen objects at a great distance. When these people were shown objects that were at a great distance from them, they perceived these objects not as distant, but as small. Similar disturbances were observed among residents of the plains when they looked down from the height of a multi-story building: all objects seemed small or toy-like to them. At the same time, high-rise builders see objects below without distortion of size. These examples convincingly prove that constancy of perception is not an innate, but an acquired property. The actual source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. From the diverse and variable flow of movements of the receptor apparatus and response sensations, the subject identifies a relatively constant, invariant structure of the perceived object. Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the stability of the perceptual image relative to these changing conditions. The constancy of perception ensures the relative stability of the surrounding world, reflecting the unity of the object and the conditions of its existence.
Selectivity of perception consists in the preferential selection of some objects over others, due to the characteristics of the subject of perception: his experience, needs, motives, etc. At any given moment, a person identifies only some objects from the countless objects and phenomena surrounding him.
The meaningfulness of perception indicates its connection with thinking, with an understanding of the essence of objects. Despite the fact that perception arises as a result of the direct impact of an object on the senses, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. assign it to a certain category, summarize it in a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to catch its similarity with familiar objects and classify it into a certain category.
Perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving subject himself. The dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, on the characteristics of his personality is called apperception. Perception is an active process that uses information to formulate and test hypotheses. The nature of the hypotheses is determined by the content of the individual’s past experience. The richer a person’s experience, the more knowledge he has, the brighter and richer his perception, the more he sees and hears.
The content of perception is also determined by the task set and the motives of the activity. For example, when listening to a piece of music performed by an orchestra, we perceive the music as a whole, without highlighting the sound of individual instruments. Only by setting the goal to highlight the sound of an instrument can this be done. An essential fact influencing the content of perception is the attitude of the subject, i.e. willingness to perceive something in a certain way. In addition, the process and content of perception are influenced by emotions.
Everything that has been said about the influence on the perception of personal factors (past experience, motives, goals and objectives of activities, attitudes, emotional states) indicates that perception is an active process that depends not only on the properties and nature of the stimulus, but to a large extent on the characteristics of the subject of perception, i.e. the perceiving person.
Depending on which analyzer is the leading one, visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory perception are distinguished. The perception of the surrounding world, as a rule, is complex: it is the result joint activities various sense organs. Depending on the object of perception, the perception of space, movement and time is distinguished.
The perception of space is important factor human interaction with environment, a necessary condition for orientation in it. The perception of space includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction in which they are located. The interaction of a person with the environment includes the human body itself, which occupies a certain place in space and has certain spatial characteristics: size, shape, three dimensions, direction of movement in space.
Determination of the shape, size, location and movement of objects in space relative to each other and the simultaneous analysis of the position of one’s own body relative to surrounding objects are accomplished in the process of motor activity of the body and constitute a special higher manifestation of analytical-synthetic activity, called spatial analysis. It has been established that the basis of various forms of spatial analysis is the activity of a complex of analyzers.
TO special mechanisms spatial orientation should include neural connections between the hemispheres of the brain in analytical activity: binocular vision, binaural hearing, etc. An important role in reflecting the spatial properties of objects is played by functional asymmetry, which is characteristic of paired analyzers. Functional asymmetry consists in the fact that one of the sides of the analyzer is to a certain extent leading, dominant. The relationship between the parties to the analyzer in terms of dominance is dynamic and ambiguous.
We perceive the movement of an object mainly due to the fact that, moving against some background, it causes sequential excitation of different retinal cells. If the background is uniform, our perception is limited by the speed of the object's movement: the human eye cannot actually observe the movement of a light beam at a speed less than 1/3o per second. Therefore, it is impossible to directly perceive the movement of the minute hand on a clock moving at a speed of 1/10O per second.
Even in the absence of a background, for example in a dark room, you can follow the movement of the light point. Apparently, the brain interprets eye movements as an indication of the movement of an object. However, most often there is a background and it, as a rule, is heterogeneous. Therefore, when perceiving movement, we can additionally use indicators associated with the background itself - elements in front of or behind which the observed object moves.
Time is a human construct that allows us to mark out and distribute our activities. The perception of time is a reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of phenomena of reality. The sense of time is not innate; it develops through experience. The perception of time depends on external and internal factors. Just like other forms of perception, it has limitations. In real activities, a person can reliably perceive only very short periods of time. Various factors can change the assessment of the passage of time. Some physiological changes, such as an increase in body temperature, contribute to the overestimation of time, while other changes, such as a decrease in temperature, on the contrary, contribute to its underestimation. The same thing happens under the influence of motivation or interest, under the influence of various drugs. Sedatives and hallucinogens cause an underestimation of time periods, while stimulants lead to an overestimation of time.
Perception is often classified according to the degree to which consciousness is directed and focused on a particular object. In this case, we can distinguish intentional (voluntary) and unintentional (involuntary) perception. Intentional perception is, at its core, observation. The success of observation largely depends on prior knowledge about the observed object. Purposeful development of observation skills is an indispensable condition vocational training many specialists, it also forms an important personality quality - observation.
6.5.Phenomena of perception.
The phenomena of perception as factors of its organization according to certain principles were best described and analyzed by the school of Gestalt psychology. The most important of these principles is that everything that a person perceives, he perceives as a figure against a background. A figure is something that is clearly and distinctly perceived, has clear boundaries and is well structured. The background is something indistinct, amorphous and unstructured. For example, we will hear our name even in a noisy company - it usually immediately stands out as a figure in the sound background. However, the entire perceptual picture is rearranged as soon as another background element becomes significant. Then what was previously seen as a figure loses its clarity and mixes with the general background.
The founder of Gestalt psychology, M. Wertheimer, identified the factors that ensure the visual grouping of elements and the selection of a figure from the background:
similarity factor. Elements similar in shape, color, size, color, texture, etc. are combined into a figure.
proximity factor. Closely spaced elements are combined into a figure;
"common destiny" factor. Elements can be combined general character changes observed in them. For example, if the perceived elements are displaced or move relative to others in the same direction and at the same speed, then they are combined into a figure;
factor of “entry without remainder”. Several elements are easily combined into a figure when there is not a single free-standing element left;
"good line" factor. Of two intersecting or touching lines, the line with the least curvature becomes the figure;
factor of isolation. Closed figures are perceived better.
An important phenomenon of human perception can be considered its illusions. Illusions of perception (from the Latin Hinders - to deceive) are defined as a distortion of the perception of real objects. The greatest number of them is observed in the field of vision. Visual illusions that arise when reflecting certain spatial properties of objects (lengths of segments, sizes of objects and angles, distances between objects, shapes) and movement are especially numerous. The following types can be named:
illusions associated with the structure of the eye. An example is illusions that are the result of the effect of irradiation of excitation in the retina and are expressed in the fact that light objects seem larger to us compared to their dark counterparts (for example, a white square on a black background seems larger than an identical black square on a light background);
overestimation of the length of vertical lines in comparison with horizontal ones when they are actually equal;
illusions caused by contrast. The perceived size of figures turns out to depend on the environment in which they are given. The same circle appears larger among small circles and smaller among large circles (Ebbinghaus illusion);
transferring the properties of a whole figure to its individual parts. We perceive a visible figure, each individual part of it, not in isolation, but always in a certain whole. In the Müller-Lyer illusion, straight lines ending in differently oriented angles appear to be unequal in length;
train track illusion. If you look into the distance, you get the impression that parallel rails intersect at the horizon.
The causes of visual illusions are varied and not clear enough. Some theories explain them by the action of peripheral factors (irradiation, accommodation, eye movements, etc.), others by the influence of some central factors. Visual illusions may be caused by exposure to special conditions observation (for example, in the case of observation with one eye or with fixed axes of the eyes), optics of the eye, temporary connections formed in past experience, etc. Illusions of visual perception are widely used in painting and architecture.
Illusions can be observed not only in the field of vision, but also in other areas of perception. Thus, the illusion of gravity by A. Charpentier is well known: if you lift two objects that are identical in weight and appearance, but different in size, then the smaller one is perceived as heavier, and vice versa. In the field of touch, Aristotle’s illusion is known: if you cross the index and middle fingers and at the same time roll a ball or pea with them, then not one ball, but two will be perceived. Visual illusions have also been found in animals. It is on their basis that various methods of camouflage and mimicry are formed. These phenomena convince us that there are some common factors that cause illusions, and for many of them there is still no convincing interpretation.
Self-test questions.
- What are the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of sensations?
- What is sensitivity and sensitivity thresholds?
- What are the basic properties of sensation and perception?
- What types of perception are there?
- What are perceptual illusions?
Literature.
- Introduction to Psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1995 Ch. 4 and 5.
- Godefroy J. What is psychology. In 2 volumes. T. 1. M., 1992. Ch. 5
- Nurkova V.V., Berezanskaya N.B. Psychology: Textbook M., 2004. Ch. 7.
- Solso R.L. Cognitive psychology. M., 1996.