14. Induction magnetic field. The principle of superposition of magnetic fields. Ampere power. Lorentz force. Electrical measuring instruments. Magnetic properties of matter.
Magnetic phenomena
Both electrical and magnetic phenomena are the interaction of bodies at a distance. These interactions are manifested in the emergence of mechanical forces and moments of force acting between bodies.The difference between electrical and magnetic interaction is manifested, for example, in the fact that for separation electric charges can be rubbed various items from each other, and to obtain magnets, rubbing objects against each other is useless. By wrapping a charged object in a wet cloth, you can destroy its electrical charge. The same procedure for a magnet will not lead to the disappearance of magnetic properties. Magnetizing magnetic materials in the presence of other magnets does not result in separation of electrical charges. These two types of interaction of objects at a distance cannot be reduced to one another.
Experimental study of magnets and various materials shows that some objects constantly have magnetic properties, that is, they are “permanent magnets,” while other bodies acquire magnetic properties only in the presence of permanent magnets. There are also materials that do not have pronounced magnetic properties, that is, they are not attracted to or repelled by strong permanent magnets. The intrinsic and induced magnetic properties of objects lead to similar effects. For example, permanent strip magnets, samples of which are usually found in every physics classroom at any school, when suspended in a horizontal position, are oriented so that their ends point north and south. This property of magnets alone has served man a lot. The compass was invented a long time ago, but the quantitative study of the magnetic properties of objects and mathematical analysis these properties were carried out only in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Let's imagine that we have “long” magnets that have poles widely spaced from each other. If two poles of two different magnets are placed close to each other, and the second poles of the same magnets are located far from each other, then the force interaction between close poles is described by the same formulas as in Coulomb’s law for electrostatic field. Each pole of a magnet can be assigned a magnetic charge, which will characterize its “north” or “south”. It is possible to come up with a procedure that includes measurements of forces or moments of forces, which would allow one to compare the magnetic “charges” of any magnets with a standard. This mental construction allows us to solve practical problems, provided that we do not yet ask ourselves the question: how does a long strip magnet work, that is, what is inside the magnet in the region of space connecting the two magnetic poles.
You can enter a unit of magnetic charge. The simplest procedure for determining such a unit is to assume that the force of interaction between two “point” magnetic poles of a unit magnetic charge, located at a distance of 1 meter from each other, is equal to 1 Newton. Since attempts to separate the magnetic poles were always unsuccessful, that is, at the place where the strip magnet was cut, two opposite magnetic poles always appeared, the magnitudes of which were exactly equal to the magnitudes of the end poles, it was concluded that magnetic poles always exist only in pairs. Consequently, any long strip magnet can be represented as shorter magnets arranged in a chain. Similarly, any magnet of finite dimensions can be represented in the form large quantity short magnets distributed throughout the space.
To describe the force interaction of electric and magnetic charges, the same idea is used about the existence of a certain force vector field in space. In the "electric" case the corresponding vector is called the vector tensions electric field E . For the “magnetic” case, the corresponding vector is called the vector induction magnetic field IN . (1)
The fields in both cases can be described by the distribution of “force vectors” in space. For the north magnetic pole, the direction of the force acting on it from the magnetic field coincides with the direction of the vector IN , and for the south pole the force is directed opposite to this vector. If the magnitude of the “magnetic charge”, taking into account its sign (“north” or “south”) is denoted by the symbol N, then the force acting on the magnetic charge from the magnetic field is equal to F =N B .
Similar to what we did when describing the interaction of electric charges through a field, we also do when describing the interaction of magnetic charges. The magnetic field created by a point magnetic charge in the surrounding space is described by exactly the same formula as in the case of an electric field.
B = K m N R /R 3 .
The constant K m is a proportionality coefficient that depends on the choice of unit system. For the interaction of magnetic charges, Coulomb’s law is also valid, and the principle of superposition is also valid.
Let us recall that Coulomb's law (or the law of universal gravitation) and Gauss's theorem are twin brothers. Since magnetic poles do not exist individually, and any magnet can be represented as a combination of pairs of poles of opposite polarity and with equal magnitudes, then in the case of a magnetic field, the flux of the magnetic field induction vector through any closed surface is always zero.
We are discussing magnetic phenomena and using the idea of magnetic charges as if they really exist. In fact, this is just one way of describing a magnetic field in space (describing magnetic interaction). When we find out the properties of the magnetic field in more detail, we will stop using this method. We need it like forest builders to erect a building. Once construction is completed, the scaffolding is dismantled and is no longer visible or needed.
The most interesting thing is that a magnetic field (static) has no effect on a stationary electric charge (or dipole), but electric field(static) has no effect on stationary magnetic charges (or dipoles). The situation is as if the fields exist independently of each other. However, peace, as we know, is a relative concept. When choosing a different reference system, a “resting” body can become “moving”. It turned out that the electric and magnetic fields are something unified, and each of the fields represents, as it were, different sides of the same coin.
Now we easily talk about the relationship between electric and magnetic fields, but until the beginning of the 19th century, electric and magnetic phenomena were not considered related. They guessed about this connection and looked for experimental confirmation. For example, the French physicist Arago collected information about ships that went off course after lightning struck the ship. “Lightning is a broken compass” – there is a connection, but how to repeat the experiment? They did not yet know how to reproduce lightning, so it was impossible to conduct a systematic study.
The starting point for understanding the connection between these phenomena was the discovery made in 1820 by the Dane Hans Christian Oersted. The influence of an electric current flowing through a long straight wire on the orientation of a movable magnetic needle located next to the wire was established. The arrow tended to be perpendicular to the wire. The opposite phenomenon: the influence of a magnetic field on an electric current was discovered experimentally by Ampere.
A small flat coil with current experiences both a force and an orienting effect in a magnetic field. If the magnetic field is uniform, then the total force acting on the coil with current is zero, and the coil is oriented (takes on an equilibrium position) in which its plane is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field induction vector. To establish the unit of magnetic field induction, this mechanical phenomenon can also be used.
Over the next few years after 1820, the main features of the interaction of current-carrying conductors with each other and with permanent magnets were clarified. Some of them are now called laws. These laws are associated with the names of physicists Ampere, Biot, Savart, Laplace. The most general conclusions from the established laws of interaction turned out to be:
- Charged particles create an electric field in the space around them.
- The electric field has the same effect on charged particles, moving or at rest.
- Moving charged particles create a magnetic field in the space around them.
- A magnetic field exerts a force on charged particles in motion and does not act on charged particles at rest.
- The electric and magnetic fields created by a charged particle, when its position and state of motion changes, do not change instantly throughout space, but there is a delay.
When studying mechanics, you and I used Newton’s laws, from which it follows that material point, moving with acceleration in any one inertial reference frame, has the same acceleration in all other ISOs, regardless of the choice. It has now become clear that the magnetic field only acts on moving charged particles. Let's imagine that in some ISO a charged particle moves in a magnetic field, but there is no electric field. Let's move to another inertial reference system, in which at a given moment in time the particle in question has zero velocity. The force influence from the magnetic field has disappeared, and the particle must still move with acceleration!!! Something is wrong in the Kingdom of Denmark! In order for a charged particle at rest at a given moment to have acceleration, it must be in an electric field!
So, it turns out that the electric and magnetic fields are not absolute, but depend on the choice of the reference system. The presence of interaction is absolute, but how it will be described, in an “electrical” or “magnetic” way, depends on the choice of the reference system. Therefore, we must understand that electric and magnetic fields are not independent of each other. In fact, it would be correct to consider a single electromagnetic field. Note that the correct description of the fields is given in the theory of James Clerk Maxwell. The equations in this theory are written in such a way that their form does not change when moving from one inertial reference system to another. This is the first "relativistic" theory in physics.
Electric currents and magnetic field
Let's go back to the beginning of the 19th century. During demonstrations at lectures at the University of G.H. Oersted himself or with the help of students noticed that a magnetic needle that happened to be near the wire changed its position when a current was passed through the wire. A more thorough study of the phenomenon showed that, depending on the magnitude and direction of the current in a long straight wire, the magnetic needles were oriented as shown in the figure:
The induction lines are closed, and in the case of a long straight conductor carrying current, these closed lines have the shape of circles located in planes perpendicular to the conductor carrying current. The centers of these circles are on the axis of the current-carrying conductor. The direction of the magnetic induction vector in given point space (tangent to the line of magnetic induction) is determined by the rule of the “right screw” (gimlet, screw, corkscrew). The direction in which the corkscrew shown in the figure moves when rotating around its axis corresponds to the direction of the current in a long straight wire, and the directions in which the extreme points of its handle move correspond to the direction of the magnetic induction vector in those places where these ends of the handle are located .
For a schematic drawing with concentric circles, charged particles in a wire located perpendicular to the plane of the drawing move along this wire, and if positively charged particles were moving, they would move “away from us beyond this plane.” If negatively charged electrons move in the wire, then they also move along the wire, but “toward us from under the plane of the drawing.”
The interfering factor was the Earth's magnetic field. The greater the current in the wire, the more accurately the arrows were oriented in the direction of the tangent to the circle with the center at the location of the wire. The conclusion is quite obvious - a magnetic field has appeared around the current-carrying conductor. Magnetic arrows line up along the magnetic field induction vector.
According to Newton's third law, the magnetic needle (magnet or its magnetic field) in turn also acts on the current-carrying conductor. It turned out that on a straight section of a conductor of length L, through which current I flows, from the side of a uniform magnetic field with induction IN a force proportional to L, I and B acts, and the direction of the force depends on the relative orientation of the vectors L And IN . Vector L coincides in direction with the direction of the velocity of positive charged particles that create an electric current in this piece of wire. This force was named after one of the active researchers of magnetic phenomena - A.M. Ampere.
F =K I [ L × B ].
Here K is the proportionality coefficient. Square brackets denote the vector product of two vectors. If the conductor is not straight and the magnetic field is not uniform, then in this case, in order to find the force acting on the current-carrying conductor, you need to divide it (mentally) into many small segments. For each small segment we can assume that it is in a uniform field. The total force is found by summing the Ampere forces over all these segments.
Interaction of conductors with current
The current in the wire creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space, and this magnetic field in turn exerts a force on another wire with current. (2) In the SI system of units, the unit of current 1 Ampere is determined from the force interaction of parallel conductors with current. Two thin long parallel conductors, located at a distance of 1 meter from each other, through which identical constant currents of the same direction flow with a force of 1 Ampere, are attracted to each other with a force of 2 × 10 -7 Newton for each meter of length of the conductor.In the SI system, in the formula for the Ampere force, the proportionality coefficient K is chosen equal to unity:
F =I[ L × B ].
Lorentz force
If we substitute into the formula for the Ampere force the expression for the magnitude of the current, composed of the terms created by each moving charged particle, then we can conclude that in a magnetic field a force acts on each moving charged particle:F = q [ v × IN ].
In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields in space, a charged particle experiences the force:
F = q [ v × IN ] + q E .
The force acting on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field is called the Lorentz force. This expression for force is always valid, and not only for stationary fields.
If we calculate the work of the Lorentz force that it does during elementary movement of a particle, then the expression for the force must be scalarly multiplied by the product v Δt. The first term in the formula for the Lorentz force is the vector perpendicular to the particle velocity, so multiplying it by v Δt gives zero.
Thus, the magnetic component of the Lorentz force does not do any work when moving a charged particle, since the corresponding elementary displacements and the magnetic component of the force are always perpendicular to each other.
What magnetic field is generated by the current?
The experiments of Biot and Savart and the theoretical work of Laplace (all French physicists) led to a formula for finding the contribution of each small section of a current-carrying conductor to the “common cause” - the creation of the magnetic field induction vector at a given point in space.When deriving (more precisely: selecting) the general formula, the assumption was made that the total field consists of individual parts, and the principle of superposition is fulfilled, that is, the fields created by different sections of current-carrying conductors add up as vectors. Every section of a conductor carrying current, and in fact every moving charged particle, creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space. The resulting field at a given point arises as a result of the addition of magnetic induction vectors created by each section of the current-carrying conductor.
Elementary component of the magnetic induction vector Δ IN , created by a small section of the conductor Δ l with current I at a point in space that differs in position from this section of the conductor by vector R , is in accordance with the formula:
Δ IN = (μ 0 /4π) I [Δ l × R ]/R 3 .
Here [Δ l × R ] is the vector product of two vectors. The dimensional coefficient (μ 0 /4π) is introduced exactly in this form in the SI system for reasons of convenience, which, we repeat, in school physics do not show up at all.
The field created by a conductor of arbitrary shape, as usual, is found by summing the elementary vectors of magnetic induction created by small sections of this conductor. All experimental results with direct currents confirm the predictions obtained using the formula written above, which bears the name: Biot - Savart - Laplace.
Let's remember the definition of current that we introduced last semester. Current is the flow of the current density vector through a selected surface. The formula for finding the current density included the sum of all moving charged particles:
J = Σq i v i /V, I=( JS )
The Biot–Savart–Laplace formula, therefore, includes the product (Δ l S ), and this is the volume of the conductor in which charged particles move.
We can conclude that the magnetic field created by the current-carrying area arises as a result of the combined action of all charged particles in this area. The contribution of each particle having charge q and moving with speed v equal to:
IN = (μ 0 /4π) q [ v × R ]/R 3 = μ 0 ε 0 [ v × E ],
Where E = q R /(4πε 0 R 3).
Here R is a radius vector, the beginning of which is located at the point where the particle is located, and the end of the vector is located at the point in space where the magnetic field is sought. The second part of the formula shows how the electric and magnetic fields created by a charged particle at the same point in space are related to each other.
E - electric field created by the same particle at the same point in space. μ 0 =
4π×10 -7 H/m - magnetic constant.
“Non-centrality” of the forces of electromagnetic interaction
If we consider the interaction of two point moving charged identical particles, then attention is drawn to the fact that the forces describing this interaction are not directed along the straight line connecting the particles. Indeed, the electrical part of the interaction forces is directed along this straight line, but the magnetic part is not.Let all other particles be very far from this pair of particles. To describe the interaction, we choose a reference system associated with the center of mass of these particles.
The sum of the internal electrical forces is obviously zero, since they are directed in opposite directions, located along the same straight line and are equal to each other in magnitude.
The sum of magnetic forces is also zero:
Qμ 0 ε 0 [ v 2 [v 1 × E 1 ]] + qμ 0 ε 0 [ v 1 [v 2 × E 2 ]] = 0
v 2 = – v 1 ; E 1 = – E 2 .
And here is the sum of the moments internal forces may not be equal to zero:
Qμ 0 ε 0 [ R 12 [v 2 [v 1 × E 1 ]]] = qμ 0 ε 0 [ v 1 × E 1 ](R 12 v 2 ).
It may seem that an example has been found that refutes Newton's third law. However, it should be noted that the third law itself is formulated in a model form, provided that there are only two participants in the interaction, and it does not in any way consider the nature of the transmission of interaction at a distance. In this case, there are three participants in the event: two particles and an electromagnetic field in the space around them. If the system is isolated, then for it as a whole the law of conservation of momentum and angular momentum is satisfied, since not only particles, but also the electromagnetic field itself has these characteristics of motion. It follows from this that it is necessary to consider the interaction of moving charged particles taking into account changes in space electromagnetic field. We will discuss (in one of the following sections) the emergence and spread in space electromagnetic waves with the accelerated movement of charged particles.
If we choose some other reference system in which the moduli of the velocities of these particles v 1 and v 2, then the ratio of the moduli of the magnetic component of the interaction force between particles and the electrical component is less than or equal to the value:
This means that at particle speeds much lower than the speed of light, the electrical component of the interaction plays the main role.
In situations where electric charges in wires compensate each other, the electrical part of the interaction of systems consisting of a large number of charged particles becomes significantly smaller than the magnetic part. This circumstance makes it possible to study the magnetic interaction “separately” from the electrical one.
Meters and speakers
After the discoveries of Oersted and Ampere, physicists received instruments for recording current: galvanometers. These devices use the interaction of current and magnetic field. Some of the modern devices use permanent magnets, and some use a current to create a magnetic field. They are now called differently - ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter, wattmeter, etc. but basically all devices of this type are the same. In them, a magnetic field acts on a coil carrying current.IN measuring instruments The current-carrying coil is located in such a way that a mechanical torque acts on it from the side of the magnetic field. A coil spring attached to a coil creates a mechanical torque acting on the coil. The equilibrium position is achieved by rotating the frame with current at an angle corresponding to the flowing current. An arrow is attached to the coil; the angle of rotation of the arrow serves as a measure of current.
In devices of a magnetoelectric system, the magnetic field is constant. It is created by a permanent magnet. In electromagnetic system devices, the magnetic field is created by a current flowing through a stationary coil. The mechanical torque is proportional to the product of the moving coil current and the magnetic field induction, which in turn is proportional to the current in the stationary coil. If, for example, the currents in both coils of an electromagnetic system device are proportional to each other, then the moment of force is proportional to the square of the current.
By the way, your favorite dynamic loudspeakers were created based on the interaction of current and magnetic field. In them, the coil through which current is passed is located so that from the side of the magnetic field a force acts on it along the axis of the speaker. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the current in the coil. Changing the direction of the current in the coil leads to a change in the direction of the force.
Ampere's hypothesis
To explain the internal structure of permanent magnets (made from ferromagnetic materials), Ampere put forward an assumption - a hypothesis - that the magnet material consists of a large number of small current-carrying circuits. Each molecule of a substance forms a small frame with current. Inside the magnet material throughout the entire volume, molecular currents compensate each other, and on the surface of the object it is as if a “surface” current flows. If there is a cavity inside a magnetic body, then an uncompensated “surface” current also flows along the surface of this cavity.This surface current creates in the space surrounding the magnet exactly the same magnetic field as the currents of all magnet molecules during their combined action.
Ampere's hypothesis waited for experimental confirmation for several decades and, in the end, completely justified itself. According to modern concepts, some atoms and molecules have their own magnetic moments associated with the movement of charged particles inside them, from which these atoms and molecules are composed. As it turned out, the charged particles themselves, from which atoms and molecules are built, have magnetic dipole moments associated with the mechanical internal motion of these particles. (3)
Ampere's hypothesis makes it possible to abandon the model of magnetic charges, since it quite adequately explains the origin of magnetic interaction.
Tasks:
- Two long strip magnets lie next to each other, pole to pole. The northern one is next to the northern one, and the southern one is next to the southern one. On a line that is a continuation of the magnets at point A, located at a distance L from the poles closest to it, a magnetic field with induction B is created. You have been given the task to increase the field induction at point A by 1.414 times, and change the direction of the field at this point by 45°. You are allowed to move one of the magnets. How will you complete the task?
- During an expedition to the north magnetic pole of the Earth, the expedition members placed N = 1000 very light tripods, each with a height of L = 1 m and a base with a diameter of D = 10 cm, on a flat horizontal surface of ice around the pole and stretched a metal wire with an area of cross section S = 1 mm 2. The result is a flat polygon with a shape close to a ring of radius R = 100 m. What minimum direct current must be passed through the wire so that all the tripods fall inside the polygon formed by their bases? The magnitude of the magnetic field induction B near the pole on the Earth's surface is 10 -4 Tesla. The density ρ of the wire material is 10 4 kg/m 3.
- Two thin parallel wires carry equal currents in opposite directions. The wires are located at a distance L from each other. At point A, located at a distance L, both from one and from the other wire currents created a magnetic field with induction B. At the bottom of the wires, the direction of the current changed to the opposite, but the magnitude of the current remained the same. How has the magnetic field induction changed (in magnitude and direction) at this point A?
- On smooth horizontal table lies a round coil of stiff wire. The radius of the coil is R. The mass of the coil is M. There is a uniform horizontal magnetic field in space with induction B. What minimum direct current must be passed through the coil so that it stops lying motionless horizontally? Describe its movement after passing such a current.
- A particle with mass M and charge Q moves in a uniform magnetic field with induction B. The speed of the particle makes an angle & (alpha) with the magnetic field induction vector. Describe the nature of the particle's motion. What is the shape of its trajectory?
- A charged particle has entered a region of space where there is a uniform and mutually perpendicular electric field E and magnetic field B. The particle moves at a constant speed. What is its minimum possible value?
- Two protons moving in a uniform magnetic field B = 0.1 T are constantly at the same distance L = 1 m from each other. At what minimum proton speeds is this possible?
- In the region of space between the planes X = A and X = C, there is a uniform magnetic field B directed along the Y axis. A particle with mass M and charge Q flies into this region of space, having a speed V directed along the Z axis. What angle will the speed make? particle with plane X =const after it leaves the region with a magnetic field? Axes X,Y,Z mutually perpendicular.
- A long (L) uniform rod is made from a “weakly magnetic” (not ferromagnetic) material. It was suspended by the middle on a thin long thread in a laboratory located near the equator. In the field of gravity and in the magnetic field of the Earth, the rod was positioned horizontally. The rod was removed from its equilibrium position by rotating it through an angle of 30° around a vertical axis coinciding with the thread. The rod was left motionless and released. After 10 seconds the rod has passed the equilibrium position. In what minimum time will it pass the equilibrium position again? Then the rod was cut into two rods of equal length L/2. The same experiment was done with one of them. With what period does the shortened rod perform small oscillations near the equilibrium position?
- On the axis of a small cylindrical magnet there is a small “weakly magnetic” ball. The distance L from the ball to the magnet is much larger than the dimensions of the magnet and the ball. The bodies attract each other with a force F. With what force will they attract if the distance between them decreases by 2 times? The ball remains on the axis of the magnet.
1 Historical names do not adequately reflect the meaning of the introduced quantities characterizing the electric and magnetic components of the “electromagnetic field”, so we will not deal with the etymology of these words.
2 Remember: we used approximately the same formulation when discussing the interaction of electric charges.
3 In this case, we mean such a property of elementary particles as their own mechanical angular momentum - spin.
Magnetism has been studied since ancient times, and over the past two centuries it has become the basis of modern civilization.
Humanity has been collecting knowledge about magnetic phenomena for at least three and a half thousand years (the first observations of electrical forces took place a thousand years later). Four hundred years ago, at the dawn of physics, the magnetic properties of substances were separated from the electrical ones, after which for a long time both were studied independently. Thus, an experimental and theoretical base was created, which by the middle of the 19th century became the basis of a unified theory electromagnetic phenomena Most likely, unusual properties The natural mineral magnetite (magnetic iron ore, Fe3O4) was known in Mesopotamia back in the Bronze Age. And after the emergence of iron metallurgy, it was impossible not to notice that magnetite attracts iron products. The father of Greek philosophy, Thales of Miletus (approximately 640−546 BC), already thought about the reasons for such attraction, who explained it by the special animation of this mineral (Thales also knew that amber rubbed on wool attracts dry leaves and small splinters, and therefore endowed him with spiritual strength). Later, Greek thinkers talked about invisible vapors enveloping magnetite and iron and attracting them to each other. It is not surprising that the word “magnet” itself also has Greek roots. Most likely, it goes back to the name of Magnesia-y-Sipila, a city in Asia Minor, near which magnetite lay. The Greek poet Nikander mentioned the shepherd Magnis, who found himself next to a rock that was pulling the iron tip of his staff towards itself, but this, in all likelihood, is just a beautiful legend.
Natural magnets were also of interest in Ancient China. The ability of magnetite to attract iron is mentioned in the treatise "Spring and Autumn Records of Master Liu", dating back to 240 BC. A century later, the Chinese noticed that magnetite had no effect on either copper or ceramics. In the VII-VIII centuries. /bm9icg===>ekah they found out that a freely suspended magnetized iron needle turns towards the North Star. As a result, in the second half of the 11th century, real marine compasses appeared in China; European sailors mastered them a hundred years later. Around the same time, the Chinese discovered that the magnetized needle points east of the north direction and thereby discovered magnetic declination, far ahead of European navigators in this matter, who came to this conclusion only in the 15th century.
Small magnets
In a ferromagnet, the intrinsic magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in parallel (the energy of this orientation is minimal). As a result, magnetized areas are formed, domains - microscopic (10−4-10−6 m) permanent magnets separated by domain walls. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the domains are randomly oriented in the ferromagnet; in the external field, the boundaries begin to shift, so that domains with moments parallel to the field displace all others—the ferromagnet is magnetized.
The Birth of the Science of Magnetism
The first description of the properties of natural magnets in Europe was made by the Frenchman Pierre de Maricourt. In 1269, he served in the army of King Charles of Anjou of Sicily, which besieged the Italian city of Lucera. From there he sent a document to a friend in Picardy, which went down in the history of science as the “Letter on the Magnet” (Epistola de Magnete), where he spoke about his experiments with magnetic iron ore. Maricourt noticed that in every piece of magnetite there were two areas that were especially strong at attracting iron. He saw a parallel between these zones and the poles of the celestial sphere and borrowed their names for the areas of maximum magnetic force - which is why we now talk about the north and south magnetic poles. If you break a piece of magnetite in two, writes Maricourt, each fragment will have its own poles. Maricourt not only confirmed that both attraction and repulsion occur between pieces of magnetite (this was already known), but for the first time associated this effect with the interaction between opposite (north and south) or like poles.
Many historians of science consider Maricourt to be the undisputed pioneer of European experimental science. In any case, his notes on magnetism were circulated in dozens of lists, and after the advent of printing, they were published as a separate brochure. They were quoted with respect by many naturalists until the 17th century. This work was well known to the English naturalist and physician (physician to Queen Elizabeth and her successor James I) William Gilbert, who in 1600 published (as expected, in Latin) a wonderful work “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet - the Earth " In this book, Gilbert not only provided almost all known information about the properties of natural magnets and magnetized iron, but also described his own experiments with a magnetite ball, with the help of which he reproduced the main features of terrestrial magnetism. For example, he discovered that at both magnetic poles of such a “little Earth” (terrella in Latin), the compass needle is set perpendicular to its surface, at the equator - parallel, and at middle latitudes - in an intermediate position. This is how Hilbert modeled the magnetic inclination, the existence of which had been known in Europe for more than half a century (in 1544, this phenomenon was first described by the Nuremberg mechanic Georg Hartmann).
A revolution in navigation. The compass made a real revolution in maritime navigation, making global travel not isolated cases, but a familiar, regular routine.
Gilbert also reproduced on his model the geomagnetic declination, which he attributed not ideally smooth surface ball (and therefore, on a planetary scale, explained this effect by the attraction of continents). He discovered that highly heated iron loses its magnetic properties, but when cooled they are restored. Finally, Gilbert was the first to make a clear distinction between the attraction of a magnet and the attraction of rubbed amber, which he called electric force (from the Latin name for amber, electrum). In general, it was an extremely innovative work, appreciated by both contemporaries and descendants. Gilbert's statement that the Earth should be considered a “large magnet” became the second fundamental scientific conclusion about physical properties of our planet (the first is the discovery of its spherical shape, made back in Antiquity).
Two centuries break
After Gilbert, the science of magnetism made very little progress until the beginning of the 19th century. What has been accomplished during this time can literally be counted on one’s fingers. In 1640, Galileo's student Benedetto Castelli explained the attraction of magnetite by the presence of many tiny magnetic particles in its composition - the first and very imperfect guess that the nature of magnetism should be sought at the atomic level. The Dutchman Sebald Brugmans noticed in 1778 that bismuth and antimony were repelled by the poles of a magnetic needle - this was the first example of a physical phenomenon that Faraday called diamagnetism 67 years later. In 1785, Charles-Augustin Coulomb, using precision measurements on a torsion balance, showed that the force of interaction between magnetic poles is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them - just like the force of interaction between electric charges (in 1750, the Englishman John Michell came to a similar conclusion, but the Coulomb conclusion is much more reliable).
But the study of electricity in those years moved by leaps and bounds. It's not difficult to explain. Natural magnets remained the only primary sources of magnetic force—science knew no others. Their power is stable, it cannot be changed (except perhaps destroyed by heat), much less generated at will. It is clear that this circumstance greatly limited the possibilities of the experimenters.
Electricity was in a much more advantageous position - because it could be received and stored. The first static charge generator was built in 1663 by the burgomaster of Magdeburg, Otto von Guericke (the famous Magdeburg hemispheres are also his brainchild). A century later, such generators became so widespread that they were even demonstrated at high society receptions. In 1744, the German Ewald Georg von Kleist and a little later the Dutchman Pieter van Musschenbroek invented the Leyden jar - the first electric capacitor; At the same time, the first electrometers appeared. As a result, by the end of the 18th century, science knew much more about electricity than at its beginning. But the same could not be said about magnetism.
And then everything changed. In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the first chemical source of electric current, the voltaic battery, also known as a voltaic cell. After this, the discovery of the connection between electricity and magnetism was a matter of time. It could have taken place as early as the next year, when the French chemist Nicolas Gauthereau noticed that two parallel wires carrying current are attracted to each other. However, neither he, nor the great Laplace, nor the wonderful experimental physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who later observed this phenomenon, attached any significance to it. Therefore, priority rightly went to the scientist, who had long assumed the existence of such a connection and devoted many years to searching for it.
From Copenhagen to Paris
Everyone has read the fairy tales and stories of Hans Christian Andersen, but few people know that when the future author of “The Naked King” and “Thumbelina” reached Copenhagen as a fourteen-year-old teenager, he found a friend and patron in the person of his double namesake, an ordinary professor of physics and chemistry at the University of Copenhagen Hans Christian Oersted. And both glorified their country throughout the world.
The variety of magnetic fields Ampere studied the interaction between parallel conductors carrying current. His ideas were developed by Faraday, who proposed the concept of magnetic power lines.
Since 1813, Oersted quite consciously tried to establish a connection between electricity and magnetism (he was an adherent of the great philosopher Immanuel Kant, who believed that all natural forces have an internal unity). Oersted used compasses as indicators, but for a long time to no avail. Oersted expected that the magnetic strength of the current was parallel to itself, and to obtain maximum torque he had electrical wire perpendicular to the compass needle. Naturally, the arrow did not react when the current was turned on. And only in the spring of 1820, during a lecture, Oersted stretched the wire parallel to the arrow (either to see what would come of it, or he came up with a new hypothesis - historians of physics are still arguing about this). And it was here that the needle swung - not too much (Oersted had a low-power battery), but still noticeably.
True, the great discovery had not yet taken place. For some reason, Oersted interrupted the experiments for three months and returned to them only in July. And it was then that he realized that “the magnetic effect of an electric current is directed along the circles enclosing this current.” This was a paradoxical conclusion, since rotating forces had not previously appeared either in mechanics or in any other branch of physics. Ørsted outlined his findings in an article and sent it to several publications on July 21 scientific journals. Then he no longer studied electromagnetism, and the baton passed to other scientists. The Parisians were the first to accept it. On September 4, the famous physicist and mathematician Dominic Arago spoke about Oersted's discovery at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences. His colleague Andre-Marie Ampere decided to study the magnetic effect of currents and literally the next day began experiments. First of all, he repeated and confirmed Oersted's experiments, and in early October he discovered that parallel conductors attract if currents flow through them in the same direction, and repel if in opposite directions. Ampere studied the interaction between non-parallel conductors and presented it with a formula (Ampere's law). He also showed that coiled conductors carrying current rotate in a magnetic field, like a compass needle (and incidentally invented a solenoid - a magnetic coil). Finally, he put forward a bold hypothesis: undamped microscopic parallel circular currents flow inside magnetized materials, which are the cause of their magnetic action. At the same time, Biot and Felix Savart jointly identified a mathematical relationship that allows one to determine the intensity of the magnetic field created by direct current (Biot-Savart's law).
To emphasize the novelty of the effects studied, Ampere proposed the term “electrodynamic phenomena” and constantly used it in his publications. But this was not yet electrodynamics in the modern sense. Oersted, Ampere and their colleagues worked with direct currents that created static magnetic forces. Physicists had yet to discover and explain truly dynamic, non-stationary electromagnetic processes. This problem was solved in the 1830s–1870s. About a dozen researchers from Europe (including Russia - remember Lenz’s rule) and the USA had a hand in it. However, the main merit undoubtedly belongs to two titans of British science - Faraday and Maxwell.
London tandem
For Michael Faraday, 1821 was truly a fateful year. He received the coveted position of Superintendent of the Royal Institution of London and, virtually by accident, began a research program that has earned him a unique place in the history of world science.
Magnetic and not so much. Various substances in an external magnetic field they behave differently, this is due to the different behavior of the atoms’ own magnetic moments. The best known are ferromagnets; there are paramagnets, antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets, as well as diamagnets, the atoms of which do not have their own magnetic moments (in an external field they are weakly magnetized “against the field”).
It happened like this. The editor of the Annals of Philosophy, Richard Phillips, invited Faraday to write a critical review of new works on the magnetic action of current. Faraday not only followed this advice and published “Historical Sketch of Electromagnetism,” but began his own research, which lasted for many years. First, like Ampere, he repeated Oersted’s experiment, and then moved on. By the end of 1821, he made a device where a current-carrying conductor rotated around a strip magnet, and another magnet rotated around a second conductor. Faraday suggested that both the magnet and the live wire are surrounded by concentric lines of force, lines of force, which determine their mechanical action. This was already the embryo of the concept of a magnetic field, although Faraday himself did not use such a term.
At first he revered ley lines convenient method descriptions of observations, but over time he became convinced of their physical reality (especially since he found a way to observe them using iron filings scattered between magnets). By the end of the 1830s, he clearly realized that the energy, the source of which was permanent magnets and live conductors, was distributed in space filled with lines of force. In fact, Faraday was already thinking in field theoretical terms, in which he was significantly ahead of his contemporaries.
But his main discovery was different. In August 1831, Faraday was able to make magnetism generate electric current. His device consisted of an iron ring with two opposing windings. One of the spirals could be connected to an electric battery, the other was connected to a conductor located above the magnetic compass. The arrow did not change position if a direct current flowed through the first coil, but swung when it was turned on and off. Faraday realized that at this time electrical impulses arose in the second winding, caused by the appearance or disappearance of magnetic lines of force. In other words, he discovered that electromotive force is caused by changes in the magnetic field. This effect was also discovered by the American physicist Joseph Henry, but he published his results later than Faraday and did not make such serious theoretical conclusions.
Electromagnets and solenoids underlie many technologies, without which it is impossible to imagine modern civilization: from electricity-generating electric generators, electric motors, transformers to radio communications and, in general, almost all modern electronics.
Towards the end of his life, Faraday came to the conclusion that new knowledge about electromagnetism needed mathematical formulation. He decided that this task would be up to James Clerk Maxwell, a young professor at Marischal College in the Scottish city of Aberdeen, which he wrote to him about in November 1857. And Maxwell really united all the then knowledge about electromagnetism into a single mathematical theory. This work was largely accomplished in the first half of the 1860s, when he became professor of natural philosophy at King's College London. The concept of an electromagnetic field first appeared in 1864 in a memoir presented to the Royal Society of London. Maxwell introduced this term to designate “that part of space which contains and surrounds bodies in an electric or magnetic state,” and specifically emphasized that this space can be either empty or filled with any kind of matter.
The main result of Maxwell's work was a system of equations connecting electromagnetic phenomena. In his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, published in 1873, he called them the general equations of the electromagnetic field, and today they are called Maxwell's equations. Later, they were generalized more than once (for example, to describe electromagnetic phenomena in various media), and also rewritten using an increasingly sophisticated mathematical formalism. Maxwell also showed that these equations admit of solutions involving undamped transverse waves, of which visible light is a special case.
Maxwell's theory introduced magnetism as a special kind of interaction between electric currents. Quantum physics of the 20th century added only two new points to this picture. We now know that electromagnetic interactions are carried by photons and that electrons and many other elementary particles have their own magnetic moments. All experimental and theoretical work in the field of magnetism is built on this foundation.
Storms, etc. How do they arise? What are they characterized by?
Magnetism
Magnetic phenomena and properties are collectively called magnetism. Their existence has been known for a very long time. It is assumed that already four thousand years ago the Chinese used this knowledge to create a compass and navigate sea voyages. They began to conduct experiments and seriously study the physical magnetic phenomenon only in the 19th century. Hans Oersted is considered one of the first researchers in this field.
Magnetic phenomena can occur both in Space and on Earth, and appear only within magnetic fields. Such fields arise from electric charges. When the charges are stationary, an electric field is formed around them. When they move there is a magnetic field.
That is, the phenomenon of a magnetic field occurs with the appearance of an electric current or an alternating electric field. This is a region of space within which a force acts that influences magnets and magnetic conductors. It has its own direction and decreases as it moves away from its source - the conductor.
Magnets
The body around which a magnetic field is formed is called a magnet. The smallest of them is the electron. The attraction of magnets is the most famous physical magnetic phenomenon: if you put two magnets next to each other, they will either attract or repel. It's all about their position relative to each other. Each magnet has two poles: north and south.
Like poles repel, and unlike poles, on the contrary, attract. If you cut it in two, then the northern and South Pole but will not separate. As a result, we will get two magnets, each of which will also have two poles.
There are a number of materials that have magnetic properties. These include iron, cobalt, nickel, steel, etc. Among them there are liquids, alloys, and chemical compounds. If you hold magnets near a magnet, they themselves will become one.
Substances such as pure iron easily acquire this property, but also quickly say goodbye to it. Others (for example, steel) take longer to magnetize, but retain the effect for a long time.
Magnetization
We established above that a magnetic field arises when charged particles move. But what kind of movement can we talk about, for example, in a piece of iron hanging on a refrigerator? All substances consist of atoms, which contain moving particles.
Each atom has its own magnetic field. But in some materials these fields are directed chaotically in different directions. Because of this, one large field is not created around them. Such substances are not capable of magnetization.
In other materials (iron, cobalt, nickel, steel), the atoms are able to line up so that they all point in the same direction. As a result, a general magnetic field is formed around them and the body becomes magnetized.
It turns out that the magnetization of a body is the ordering of the fields of its atoms. To break this order, just hit it hard, for example with a hammer. The fields of atoms will begin to move chaotically and lose their magnetic properties. The same thing will happen if the material is heated.
Magnetic induction
Magnetic phenomena are associated with moving charges. Thus, a magnetic field certainly arises around a conductor carrying electric current. But could it be the other way around? The English physicist Michael Faraday once asked this question and discovered the phenomenon of magnetic induction.
He concluded that a constant field cannot cause an electric current, but an alternating field can. The current occurs in closed loop magnetic field and is called induction. The electromotive force will change in proportion to the change in the speed of the field that permeates the circuit.
Faraday's discovery was a real breakthrough and brought considerable benefits to electrical equipment manufacturers. Thanks to him, it became possible to generate current from mechanical energy. The law derived by the scientist was and is applied in the design of electric motors, various generators, transformers, etc.
Earth's magnetic field
Jupiter, Neptune, Saturn and Uranus have a magnetic field. Our planet is no exception. IN ordinary life we hardly notice it. It is intangible, has no taste or smell. But magnetic phenomena in nature are associated with it. Such as the aurora, magnetic storms or magnetoreception in animals.
In essence, the Earth is a huge, but not very strong magnet, which has two poles that do not coincide with geographical ones. Magnetic lines leave the planet's South Pole and enter the North Pole. This means that in fact the South Pole of the Earth is the north pole of a magnet (which is why in the West blue is the south pole - S, and red is the north pole - N).
The magnetic field extends hundreds of kilometers from the planet's surface. It serves as an invisible dome that reflects powerful galactic and solar radiation. During the collision of radiation particles with the Earth's shell, many magnetic phenomena are formed. Let's look at the most famous of them.
Magnetic storms
The Sun has a strong influence on our planet. It not only gives us warmth and light, but also provokes such unpleasant magnetic phenomena as storms. Their appearance is associated with an increase in solar activity and processes that occur inside this star.
The Earth is constantly influenced by the flow of ionized particles from the Sun. They move at a speed of 300-1200 km/s and are characterized as solar wind. But from time to time, sudden emissions of huge numbers of these particles occur on the star. They act on the earth's shell as shocks and cause the magnetic field to oscillate.
Such storms usually last up to three days. At this time, some inhabitants of our planet are feeling unwell. Fluctuations in the membrane affect us with headaches, increased blood pressure and weakness. In a lifetime, a person experiences an average of 2,000 storms.
Northern lights
There are also more pleasant magnetic phenomena in nature - the northern lights or the aurora. It appears as a glow in the sky with rapidly changing colors, and occurs mainly at high latitudes (67-70°). With strong solar activity, the glow is also observed lower.
About 64 kilometers above the poles, charged solar particles encounter the far reaches of the magnetic field. Here, some of them are directed to the magnetic poles of the Earth, where they interact with atmospheric gases, which is why the glow appears.
The spectrum of the glow depends on the composition of the air and its rarefaction. The red glow occurs at an altitude of 150 to 400 kilometers. Blue and green shades are associated with high levels of oxygen and nitrogen. They occur at an altitude of 100 kilometers.
Magnetoreception
The main science that studies magnetic phenomena is physics. However, some of them may also involve biology. For example, the magnetic sensitivity of living organisms is the ability to recognize the Earth’s magnetic field.
Many animals, especially migratory species, have this unique gift. The ability for magnetoreception has been found in bats, pigeons, turtles, cats, deer, some bacteria, etc. It helps animals navigate in space and find their home, moving away from it tens of kilometers.
If a person uses a compass for orientation, then animals use completely natural tools. Scientists cannot yet determine exactly how and why magnetoreception works. But it is known that pigeons are able to find their home even if they are taken hundreds of kilometers away from it, while closing the bird in a completely dark box. Turtles find their birthplace even years later.
Thanks to their “superpowers,” animals anticipate volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, storms and other disasters. They subtly sense fluctuations in the magnetic field, which increases their ability to self-preserve.
The proposed topic is a timid attempt to come closer to understanding some part of the Creator’s plan to create the foundations for the construction and functioning of the Universe. The direction in which one can try to understand his plan was outlined by the Witch Doctor in commentary 1184 to the topic “What is gravity”: “At this stage, I understand the first principle this way: the first principle or first matter is what the ether-vacuum consists of, what creates fields of which elementary particles are made. And in the future, there will be the fundamental particles that make up the particles of the ether. But always and everywhere the fundamental principle will be particles.”
The proposed topic does not consider the particles of the fundamental principle that make up the particles of the ether; let’s start with what the ether consists of.
Initial assumptions constitute the weak link of any hypothesis. The absence today of the possibility of experimental verification of the initial assumptions does not necessarily mean that they are incorrect; in addition, the experimental data may be misinterpreted. Rutherford's misinterpretation of the results of alpha particle scattering experiments he conducted in 1911 complicated the understanding of the mechanism of communication between atoms for a century. In one of the comments, che wrote: “...after all, a theory is tested exclusively by the implementation of the predictions it generates...” Prediction of the properties of elements based on calculations performed according to the proposed electron structure scheme will serve as a test of the hypothesis proposed in the topic. In all the drawings in the topic, scale is not respected, the priority is clarity.
Initial assumptions.
Any interaction can only be transmitted through contact.
In nature, there is only contact interaction and continuous movement of particles of the fundamental principle (“this is what the ether-vacuum is made of, what creates fields, what elementary particles are made of”), regardless of whether they are single particles or they are part of a formation. These particles transmit the interaction and participate in it.
The universe is built on harmonious relationships sequences of contact interactions of particles of the fundamental principle.
Simple experiments.
Experiment 1. Let's take a permanent magnet and note the force of attraction of the magnetic field at a certain point (test body). Let's pass a constant electric current through a magnet. The magnetic field created by the electric current must be directed opposite to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. We will increase the current by sequentially measuring the resistance of the permanent magnet. Up to a certain current value, the resistance in the magnet will practically not change. The force of attraction will also not change. At a certain value current we get an abrupt decrease in the resistance of the permanent magnet, and the force of attraction will decrease abruptly. After this, when the passage of electric current stops, the magnetic properties of the permanent magnet are not restored.
Experiment 2. Place two permanent magnets in a container from which air has been pumped out (a vacuum has been created). The interaction of magnets in a container will be no different from their interaction under normal atmospheric conditions.
Experiment 3. Let’s cool the container and, accordingly, the permanent magnets to the temperature of liquid nitrogen. The properties of magnets disappear and are not restored when they are returned to the normal atmosphere.
Particles of the fundamental principle.
The magnetic field of a permanent magnet can only exist if charges are constantly moving along the surface of the magnet. Atoms interact with electrons.
Any interaction can only be transmitted through contact.
To ensure the transfer of charge from one atom to another atom, electrons must contain particles that will transfer this charge. These particles must also provide communication between atoms, the movement of charges along the surface of a permanent magnet and current in conductors. It follows that
the electron must consist of particles that contactally transmit the interaction between atoms. These particles transmit the interaction and participate in it.
The ether consists of the same particles. The chaotic movement of these particles determines the temperature of the ether on the order of 30K. Neutrinos, photons, quarks in protons and neutrons consist of the same particles. Let's call them truly elementary particles. We will use the term “truly elementary” in a separate topic when considering “... in the future, there will be the fundamental particles that make up the particles of the ether.”
According to my ideas, to maintain harmony in the structure and functioning of our universe, truly elementary particles must have the following characteristics. The conventional size (diameter) is about 10-55m, the density of the substance is about 5^10+6g/cm+3. Inside the substance of a truly elementary particle there is a region (zone) in a nonequilibrium state - “tension”. The equivalent of this state will be called a positive charge. The amount of charge on all particles is the same q=10-20 C. What truly elementary particles differ from each other is the size of the “tension” region in their substances. The number of truly elementary particles per unit volume of ether is constant, about 10+13 pieces per cubic centimeter, average speed is about 5^10+5m/sec.
Electron structure.
Since today the electron has been tested for discreteness only up to a size of 10-19m, it is incorrect to say that it is indivisible. The modern idea of an electron as a particle-wave not participating in contact interactions is incorrect. The above experiments indirectly indicate the discrete structure of the electron.
Let's imagine the electron as a dynamic system of truly elementary particles
(hereinafter referred to as RE). Let's assume that two pairs of identical REs, let's call them basic ones, interact in contact - oscillate in pairs around one common point.
Rice. 1 Interaction of basic electron particles
The oscillations of RE pairs are shifted relative to each other by half a period, the lines of oscillations of the pairs are perpendicular to each other. The oscillation period of one basic RE is about 5^10-25 seconds, the oscillation amplitude is about 10-15 m.
Let's assume that each base RE contact interacts alternately with three other identical REs, let's call them contact ones. The period of oscillation of one contact RE is about 3^10-24 seconds, the average amplitude of oscillations is normal conditions about 5^10-12m.
Rice. 2 Interaction of base and contact particles - the structure of the electron.
An electron consists of sixteen truly elementary particles oscillating in two concentric “layers”: in the first - four (base), in the second - twelve (contact) RE. Structural notation. The structure of the electron ensures dynamic symmetry - each RE(base) contact alternately interacts with three RE(con). The vibrations of RE(kon) in the electrons of the atom are synchronized. The size of the electron (its conventional spherical boundary) is practically determined by the amplitude of oscillations RE(con). It is important to note that RE(con), reaching the maximum distance from the geometric center of the electron to its conditional spherical boundary, does not stop even for a moment, but moves along an elliptical semicircle and then moves in the opposite direction.
In nature, there is only contact interaction and continuous movement of truly elementary particles, regardless of whether it is a single particle or whether it is part of a formation.
The charge of an electron is equal to the sum of the charges RE of its components q(e) = 10-20 C. ^ 16pcs. = 1.6^10-19 C.
In an atom, the center of the electron (the point around which the RE(base) of the electron oscillates) is located from the center of the proton at a distance of about 1.4 proton radii. The region of contact interactions RE(bases) with RE(con) in a free electron and in an electron in a hydrogen atom is a sphere; in a helium atom it is a hemisphere; it decreases with increasing element number. The segment of the region of contact interactions RE(bases) with RE(con) in the electrons of atoms is determined by the number of the element. The given design of the discrete structure of the electron is the minimum possible, which provides all the variety of connections between elements and their properties.
Formation of the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
In each electron in a ferromagnetic atom, nine RE(con) create a bond between atoms through the mutual exchange of RE(con) between electrons of neighboring atoms. Three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet do not participate in interactions with the RE(con) electrons of neighboring atoms.
During magnetization, under the influence of an external magnetic field on the surface of a ferromagnet, electrons deviate from the normal geometry of vibrations of three RE(kon), which are not involved in ensuring the connection between atoms. The radius of the elliptical semicircle increases until it contacts RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms - RE(con) begin to transfer momentum to each other in the direction of the external magnetic field. There is a constant movement of charges along the surface of the magnet in one direction - a circular current. Violation of symmetry and harmony of vibrations does not occur, since the position of the point of contact RE(con) with RE(base) in the electron does not change. Due to their smallness, there is practically no resistance to the movement of RE(kon) along an elliptical semicircle, there is no loss of energy, therefore, after removing the external magnetic field, the movement of charges along the surface of the ferromagnet (circular current) is maintained.
The speed of momentum transfer between RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms of a permanent magnet is comparable to the speed of light. The average speed of RE ether is several orders of magnitude lower. When they collide, the RE of the ether acquires an impulse in the direction of the circular current along the surface of the magnet - a disturbance of the ether occurs.
Rice. 3 Emergence of a permanent magnet field
At the initial moment of collision, directly at the surface of the magnet, the speed RE of the ether is high - the disturbance of the ether is maximum. As you move away from the surface of the magnet, the speed of the RE ether decreases due to collisions with other RE of the ether and at some distance from the magnet becomes equal to the average speed of the chaotic movement of the RE of the ether - the disturbance of the ether disappears.
The region of disturbed ether, arising as a result of the transfer of momentum from RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of a permanent magnet to RE of the ether, represents the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
Let's consider the experiments presented in the topic.
Three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet (conductor), not involved in creating a bond between atoms, are also involved in the transmission of electric current.
In this case, during the movement of RE(kon) between neighboring electrons, they collide with RE of the ether, i.e. a disturbance of the ether – a magnetic field – arises. Thus, both in a permanent magnet and when transmitting current from an external source, all three RE(con) of each electron on the surface of a ferromagnet (conductor), not involved in creating a bond between atoms, participate in the formation of a magnetic field.
The abrupt decrease in the resistance of a permanent magnet and the drop in the attractive force at a certain value of direct current (experiment 1) is explained by the fact that RE(con) on the surface of the magnet stop transferring momentum to each other during oscillations and begin to transfer momentum at the moment of replacement of RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms (current transfer from an external source).
If you bring another permanent magnet to a permanent magnet so that the directions of their circular currents are opposite, the RE of the ether, having received an impulse from the RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms, will move towards each other - the magnets will repel. When the directions of surface circular currents coincide, RE of the ether will be “displaced” from the space between the magnets, and RE of the ether from opposite sides will “push” the magnets towards each other. We observe a similar mechanism of “pushing” two boats when water moves between them.
When the magnets are cooled (experiment 3) it decreases to 10-13m. amplitude of oscillations RE(con) on the surface of the magnets. As a result, in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the magnets, the deviation RE(con) becomes insufficient for their contact interaction, the transfer of momentum stops, and the magnetic field disappears.
The movement of charges along the surface of a formation (the appearance of a magnetic field) is possible if the formation has a somewhat ordered atomic structure. In this case, RE(kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the formation can, interacting with each other in contact, transfer the impulse RE of the ether in the direction of the magnetic field. According to this principle, some magnetization of a small ferromagnet by a permanent magnet and their interaction occurs. Since in a circular current on the surface of a permanent magnet under normal conditions there is practically no resistance to the movement of charges, there is practically no loss of energy, for example when magnetizing a small ferromagnet. Under normal conditions, a permanent magnet can perform the work of moving ferromagnets indefinitely. The work is done due to the energy of RE ether - from the space between the permanent magnet and the ferromagnet, RE ether is “displaced”, and RE ether from opposite sides “pushes” them towards each other.
With an unordered atomic structure of the formation (dielectrics), the transfer of momentum between RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms and then from RE(con) to the RE of the ether (perturbation of the ether) cannot occur - a magnetic field does not arise.
The appearance of the so-called “Abrikosov vortices” is explained by the presence in the volume of type II superconductors in the electrons of neighboring RE(kon) atoms that are not involved in the formation of bonds between atoms, i.e., they can ensure the movement of charges between them - a local circular current. Thus, only the discrete structure of the electron allows one to naturally explain the nature of magnetism.
Based on the contact interaction RE (kon) in the electrons of neighboring atoms, it seems possible in the future to perform calculations of the binding energy of atoms and the energy of movement of charges along the surface of a ferromagnet. The use of these calculations to predict the properties of elements, including in compounds, will serve as testing of the proposed hypothesis.
Boris Kirilenko.
Application
Communication of atoms.
Atomic bonding is the bonding between electrons of neighboring atoms. In elements and their compounds, atoms are arranged in such a way that when they vibrate in the region of maximum distance RE(con) from the centers of their electrons, RE(con) as part of the electrons of one atom enter the region of vibrations of RE(con) as part of the electrons of a neighboring atom. A region of overlapping RE(kon) vibrations is formed in the composition of the electrons of neighboring atoms.
The mechanism of communication between atoms in elements is the exchange of RE(con) between electrons of neighboring atoms.
For clarity, the figure shows only one electron for each atom; RE, which electrons are exchanged, are highlighted in color. The cone marks a segment of the region of contact interactions RE(bases) with RE(con) in the electrons of atoms.
The connection of atoms in an element.
The exchange of RE(con) occurs along the line of contact interactions RE(con) with RE(base) in electrons. On RE(con), which has entered the region of overlap of RE(con) vibrations in neighboring electrons, a force begins to act, attracting RE(con) to the center of the electron of the neighboring atom. A mutual exchange of RE(con) occurs in the electrons of neighboring atoms - the atoms are connected. RE(con) interactions within the electrons of neighboring atoms of an element are synchronized. The size and location of the exchange zone RE(con) relative to neighboring protons determine the properties of elements and their compounds.
Electrical conductivity
The transfer of current from an external source in a conductor occurs by replacing RE(con) in the electrons of neighboring atoms on the surface of the conductor in the direction of the external field.
The replacement of RE(kon) in the electron composition occurs perpendicular to the line contact interactions RE(con) with RE(base) in the electrons of atoms. For clarity, the figure shows only one electron for each atom; RE(con), which are replaced in electrons, are highlighted in color.
Current transmission in a conductor.
When the circuit is closed, RE(con) from the current source replaces RE(con) in the electron on the surface of the conductor at the nearest point of contact. Having become unbound, having received an impulse, RE(con) of the conductor replaces RE(con) in the composition of the neighboring electron of the conductor, etc. At the end point RE goes to the current source. Theoretically, the transfer of momentum (current) by replacing RE in neighboring electrons should occur at an angle of 900 to the line of contact interactions RE within the electron. In real conductors, the centers of atoms at the nodes of the crystal lattice vibrate. Together with the centers of atoms, the centers of electrons vibrate. As a result, impulse transmission occurs with a deviation from an angle of 900, i.e. energy loss occurs. Corresponding to this angle of deflection, the amount of energy not transferred (losses) is partially used for heating and partially removed by radiation.
End of topic.
On the nature of terrestrial magnetism
There was a time when people, trying to explain why the magnetic needle always points north at one end, believed that the earth's magnetism was in the sky, that the compass needle was directed by magnetic forces emanating from the North Star. People learned relatively recently that the Earth itself is a large spherical magnet, with poles and an external magnetic field that acts on the compass needle, about 350 years ago. The great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, giving important observations of the compass needle, back in 1759 he proposed to build a self-recording compass that could record these observations while the ship was moving.
As terrestrial magnetism was explored, its various properties were gradually revealed. First of all, it was proven that geographic meridians do not coincide with magnetic meridians, the direction of which on the surface of the Earth is indicated by a compass needle, and that, thus, the Earth’s magnetic axis does not coincide with its axis of rotation. Scientists have found that the direction of the earth's magnetic field corresponds to what would happen if a magnet were placed near the center of the earth, the axis of which makes an angle of about 11.5° with the axis of rotation of our planet.
The magnetic field is characterized at each point in space not only by direction, but also by the magnitude of the intensity. On the surface of the Earth, this tension is relatively small, approximately the same as that of an ordinary school magnet at a distance of 10 - 15 cm from its ends. The strength of the earth's magnetic field can be represented as the resultant of two components: vertical and horizontal. The latter directs the compass needle along the magnetic meridian.
If you move with a compass in your hand along any latitude around the globe, you will find that the direction of the magnetic meridian in rare cases coincides with the geographical one; There is almost always some angle between these directions, which is called magnetic declination. The direction of the compass needle may deviate from the geographic meridian to the east or west. Magnetic declination is found for all places on the globe and maps of the distribution of this declination are compiled. If the compass declination in a given place is known, then the direction of the geographic meridian can be determined. This makes it possible to establish the location of a ship at sea or an aircraft above the earth's surface.
But the Earth's magnetic field changes slowly over time, and as a result, the declination of the magnetic needle also changes. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically re-compile maps that show the distribution of magnetic declination. Russia was one of the first to establish magnetic observatories at the beginning of the 19th century. However, only in the 20th century, through general magnetic surveys, detailed maps of the distribution of the magnetic field throughout the country were created; this makes it possible to construct magnetic declination maps, which are necessary for navigational service.
Slow (secular) changes in the earth's magnetic field seem to have an almost periodic character: over the course of 400-600 years, the geomagnetic field strength changes by 1-2% of its value. However, for different places on the Earth's surface this periodicity is expressed differently.
About two hundred years ago it was discovered that, along with slow changes in the earth's magnetism, there are relatively rapid - both regular and irregular - fluctuations in the strength of the earth's magnetic field. Regular oscillations coincide with certain astronomical periods: the daily rotation of the Earth around its axis, the lunar day and the annual rotation of the Earth in the circle of the Sun. The range of these fluctuations is small: daily fluctuations of the magnetic field amount to about 0.05% of the total geomagnetic field strength, and they are greater in summer than in winter; fluctuations during lunar days and even less - about 0.005%; annual fluctuations in strength also amount to a few hundredths of a percent of the field strength.
In addition, irregular changes in the earth's magnetic field are observed, so-called magnetic storms, which occur suddenly and last from several hours to several days. During storms, the change in magnetic field strength reaches several percent. For the most part, magnetic storms coincide with northern lights and are closely related to phenomena observed on the Sun, in particular sunspots.
The geomagnetic field changes irregularly not only in time, but also in space when moving along the surface of the Earth. There are places where the magnetic field strength is much greater (and sometimes less) than in the surrounding area. Such changes in the earth's field are called magnetic anomalies. For example, the region of the Kursk magnetic anomaly is world famous, where the magnetic field strength is three to four times higher than the normal strength of the surrounding area. Strong magnetic anomalies usually occur over those areas of the earth's crust that contain large amounts of iron ore- magnetite.
How are the main features of the Earth's magnetic field explained? The most difficult problem for science turned out to be the origin of the main geomagnetic field, which over the past millions of years has remained almost constant, undergoing only slight changes. A variety of assumptions have been made on this issue. Some scientists argued that the Earth cured its magnetism in the magnetic field of the Sun. Further research, however, did not confirm this assumption. Although strong magnetic fields sometimes arise in the area of the so-called sunspots, in general the Sun does not have a noticeable magnetic field at a distance of the radius of the Earth's orbit. Another hypothesis was also not confirmed, according to which the Earth, which has a constant electric charge, due to its daily rotation should form a magnetic field around itself. Calculations show that the surface charge of the Earth is generally small and can form only a negligible magnetic field when the Earth rotates.
Recently, a hypothesis has been put forward about the origin of terrestrial magnetism, which explains its occurrence by the rotation of the Earth's mass. According to this theory, any rotating mass creates magnetism, regardless of the electrical state of this mass. Even our great scientist P. N. Lebedev wanted to test this assumption experimentally: he subjected various bodies to very rapid rotation, but the emergence of magnetism was not detected in them.
Finally, some scientists believe that the sources of the magnetic field are concentrated somewhere well below the Earth's surface.
All assumptions made so far about the origin of terrestrial magnetism are not generally accepted in science. Probably, the phenomenon of the main magnetic field of the Earth is a complex combination of two main processes: a system of closed electric currents with a magnetic axis shifted relative to the axis of rotation of the Earth, and the remanent magnetization of rocks rich in magnetite in the upper layers of the earth's crust. The first process is stable, creating the main strength of the main magnetic field. It is joined by the field of residual magnetization of the earth's crust. It could have been formed under the influence of radioactive heat during the heating and cooling of rocks containing magnetite in the earth's magnetic field. As for the temporary changes in the main magnetic field, they are explained as follows. Secular changes are explained by temperature fluctuations in the underlying layers of the earth's crust; An increase or decrease in temperature changes the magnetization of rocks and causes fluctuations in the magnetic field on the Earth's surface. Daily variations of the geomagnetic field are determined by the movement of ionized air masses in high layers of the atmosphere, in the so-called ionosphere. Ionization of air occurs under the influence of sunlight, since the intensity solar radiation more around noon and especially on summer days, then the diurnal variations of the geomagnetic field take on the greatest significance at this time. Magnetic storms are explained by the fact that the Earth falls into streams of solar corpuscular radiation. Processes of eruption of individual particles occur on the Sun, which are sometimes thrown far beyond the Earth’s orbit. These particles have a high ionizing ability and quickly increase the amount of electrical charges in the ionosphere. The movement of these charges creates a magnetic field, which is perceived on Earth as a magnetic storm.
Thus, terrestrial magnetism is a very complex phenomenon: various parts of the Earth and various physical processes are involved in its creation. There is no doubt that further advances in Russian geophysics, astronomy and other sciences will make it possible in the near future to find new data on the origin of terrestrial magnetism, which will correctly explain one of the most interesting natural phenomena.