Answer:
Social mobility is the transition of a person from one social group to another.
Horizontal mobility is highlighted when a person moves to a group located on the same hierarchical level, as the previous one, and vertical, when a person moves to a higher (upward mobility) or lower (downward mobility) level in the social hierarchy.
Examples of horizontal mobility: moving from one city to another, changing religion, moving from one family to another after the breakup of a marriage, changing citizenship, moving from one political party to another, changing jobs when transferred to an approximately equivalent position.
Examples of vertical mobility: changing a low-paid job to a high-paying one, turning an unskilled worker into a skilled worker, electing a politician as president of the country (these examples demonstrate upward vertical mobility), demotion of an officer to a private, the ruin of an entrepreneur, transfer of a shop manager to the position of foreman (downward vertical mobility).
Societies where social mobility is high are called open, while societies with low social mobility are called closed. In the most closed societies (say, in a caste system), upward vertical mobility is practically impossible. In less closed ones (for example, in a class society), there are opportunities for the most ambitious or successful people to move to higher levels of the social ladder.
Traditionally, the institutions that contributed to the advancement of people from the “low” classes were the army and the church, where any private or priest, with the appropriate abilities, could achieve the highest social position - become a general or a church hierarch. Another way to rise higher in the social hierarchy was profitable marriage.
IN open society the main mechanism for increasing social status is an educational institute. Even a representative of the lowest social strata can count on achieving high position, but on the condition that he receives a good education V prestigious university, demonstrating high academic performance, determination and high intellectual abilities.
Individual and group social mobility
For individual social mobility it is possible to change the social status and role of an individual within the framework of social stratification. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a former ordinary engineer becomes an “oligarch”, and the president turns into a rich pensioner. With group social mobility, the social status of a social community changes. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a significant part of teachers, engineers, and scientists became “shuttle workers.” Social mobility also implies the possibility of changing the social status of values. For example, during the transition to post-Soviet relations, the values of liberalism (freedom, entrepreneurship, democracy, etc.) rose in our country and the values of socialism (equality, efficiency, centralism, etc.) fell.
Horizontal and vertical social mobility
Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal. With horizontal mobility, social movement of individuals and social groups
Society does not remain unshakable. In society, there is a slow or rapid increase in the number of one and a decrease in the number of another social stratum, as well as an increase or decrease in their status. The relative stability of social strata does not exclude vertical migration of individuals. According to P. Sorokin’s definition, social mobility is understood as the transition of an individual, a social community, or a value from one social status to another.”
Social mobility is the transition of a person from one social group to another.
Horizontal mobility is distinguished when a person moves to a group located at the same hierarchical level as the previous one, and vertical when a person moves to a higher (upward mobility) or lower (downward mobility) level in the social hierarchy.
Examples of horizontal mobility: moving from one city to another, changing religion, moving from one family to another after the breakup of a marriage, changing citizenship, moving from one political party to another, changing jobs when transferred to an approximately equivalent position.
Examples of vertical mobility: changing a low-paying job to a high-paying one, turning an unskilled worker into a skilled worker, electing a politician as president of the country (these examples demonstrate upward vertical mobility), demoting an officer to a private, ruining an entrepreneur, transferring a shop manager to the position of foreman (downward vertical mobility).
Societies where social mobility is high are called open, and societies with low social mobility - closed. In the most closed societies (say, in a caste system), upward vertical mobility is practically impossible. In less closed ones (for example, in a class society), there are opportunities for the most ambitious or successful people to move to higher levels of the social ladder.
Traditionally, the institutions that contributed to the advancement of people from the “low” classes were the army and the church, where any private or priest, with the appropriate abilities, could achieve the highest social position - become a general or a church hierarch. Another way to rise higher in the social hierarchy was profitable marriage.
In an open society, the main mechanism for increasing social status is the institution of education. Even a member of the lowest social strata can expect to achieve a high position, provided that he receives a good education at a prestigious university and demonstrates high academic performance, determination and high intellectual ability.
Individual and group social mobility
At individual social mobility, it is possible to change the social status and role of an individual within the framework of social stratification. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a former ordinary engineer becomes an “oligarch”, and the president turns into a rich pensioner. At group social mobility changes the social status of a social community. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a significant part of teachers, engineers, and scientists became “shuttle workers.” Social mobility also implies the possibility of changing the social status of values. For example, during the transition to post-Soviet relations, the values of liberalism (freedom, entrepreneurship, democracy, etc.) rose in our country and the values of socialism (equality, efficiency, centralism, etc.) fell.
Horizontal and vertical social mobility
Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal. At horizontal mobility is the social movement of individuals and occurs in other, but equal in status social communities. These can be considered moving from government to private structures, moving from one enterprise to another, etc. Varieties of horizontal mobility are: territorial (migration, tourism, relocation from village to city), professional (change of profession), religious (change of religion) , political (transition from one political party to another).
At vertical mobility is happening ascending And descending movement of people. An example of such mobility is the reduction of workers from the “hegemon” in the USSR to simple class in today's Russia and, conversely, the rise of speculators into the middle and upper class. Vertical social movements are associated, firstly, with profound changes in the socio-economic structure of society, the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to achieve a higher social status, and secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems and norms , political priorities. In this case, there is a movement to the top of those political forces that were able to perceive changes in the mentality, orientations and ideals of the population.
To quantitatively characterize social mobility, indicators of its speed are used. Under speed social mobility refers to vertical social distance and the number of strata (economic, professional, political, etc.) that individuals pass through in their upward or downward movement over a certain period of time. For example, after graduating from college, a young specialist can take the position of senior engineer or head of department, etc., within several years.
Intensity social mobility is characterized by the number of individuals changing social positions in a vertical or horizontal position over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals gives absolute intensity of social mobility. For example, during the years of reforms in post-Soviet Russia (1992-1998), up to one third of the “Soviet intelligentsia”, who made up the middle class of Soviet Russia, became “shuttle traders”.
Aggregate index social mobility includes its speed and intensity. In this way, one society can be compared with another to find out (1) in which one or (2) in which period social mobility is higher or lower in all respects. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional, political and other social mobility. Social mobility - important characteristic dynamic development of society. Those societies where the aggregate index of social mobility is higher develop much more dynamically, especially if this index relates to the governing strata.
Social (group) mobility is associated with the emergence of new social groups and affects the ratio of the main ones, whose no longer corresponds to the existing hierarchy. By the middle of the 20th century, managers of large enterprises, for example, became such a group. Based on this fact, Western sociology developed the concept of a “revolution of managers” (J. Bernheim). According to it, the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, complementing and displacing the class of owners of the means of production (captains).
Vertical social movements are intensive during times of structural restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups contributes to mass movement up the ladder of social status. The decline in the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provokes not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal layers that lose their usual position in society and lose the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of the values and norms that previously united them and determined their stable place in the social hierarchy.
Marginalized - These are social groups that have lost their previous social status, are deprived of the opportunity to engage in usual activities, and have found themselves unable to adapt to the new sociocultural (value and normative) environment. Their old values and norms were not supplanted by new norms and values. The efforts of marginalized people to adapt to new conditions give rise to psychological stress. The behavior of such people is characterized by extremes: they are either passive or aggressive, and also easily violate moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. A typical leader of the marginalized in post-Soviet Russia is V. Zhirinovsky.
During periods of acute social cataclysms and fundamental changes in the social structure, an almost complete renewal of the upper echelons of society can occur. Thus, the events of 1917 in our country led to the overthrow of the old ruling classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) and the rapid rise of a new ruling layer (the communist party bureaucracy) with nominally socialist values and norms. Such a radical replacement of the upper stratum of society always takes place in an atmosphere of extreme confrontation and tough struggle.
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Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level.
Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another located at the same level.
Horizontal mobility means the transition of a person from one social group to another, which is generally at the same level of social stratification, say, when a rural resident becomes urban, but his profession and income level remain the same. Vertical mobility- this is the transition of people from one social stratum to another in a hierarchical order, for example, from a lower stratum of society to a higher one, or back - from a higher stratum to a lower one.
A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
High and low fertility in different classes creates the same effect on vertical mobility that population density in different countries. Strata, like countries, can be overpopulated or underpopulated.
Sorokin distinguishes two types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying at the same level, for example, the transition of an individual from one family to another, from one religious group to another, as well as a change of place of residence. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs or his social status. But the most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that contribute to the transition of an individual or social object from one social stratum to another.
SOCIAL MOBILITY - movement of people from one social strata to another under the influence of various objective and subjective factors; The theory of social mobility reflecting these processes points to horizontal and vertical mobility. Horizontal mobility means the transition of people from one social group to another, which are, so to speak, at the same level of the social structure of society. For example, when a rural resident becomes urban, but his profession and income level remain the same. Vertical mobility is the social movement of people in a hierarchical order, for example, from a lower stratum to a higher one in terms of social status and wages, or back - from a higher stratum to a lower one. The theory of social mobility is based on the works of P. A. Sorokin, widely used in Western sociology, primarily American.
The social space of society is multidimensional. The main thing in it is vertical and horizontal mobility. Horizontally, all people are equal, while vertically, layers are distinguished.
Researchers studying utopian movements in medieval Europe have determined that utopian fantasies were most prevalent among former peasants driven off their land and becoming urban artisans, workers, the unemployed, or simply beggars. These people were drawn into a process of geographical mobility, horizontal mobility and, in addition, a process of vertical mobility. It turned out that if combined mobility covers significant masses of people, this always leads to the emergence of social movements.
Horizontal mobility is the physical movement of an individual or group from one region to another. When analyzing vertical mobility, sociologists study both the mobility of an individual within his own career and the differences in the social position of the individual and his parents.
Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin (1889 - 1968) - one of leading sociologists XX century Horizontal mobility is actual movement in physical space, migration; vertical - change in social status, movement up and down the social ladder (Sorokin P.A. Social Mobility. In different types of society this movement is different in type and speed. In every society there are so-called elevators through which this movement is carried out. Classic examples of these are the army , school, bureaucracy, professional and theological organizations. They are as necessary for the social organism as the organs for controlling blood flow in a complex biological body. Sorokin came to the conclusion that mobility contributes to the development of mental flexibility and versatility of the intellect in general, but, in turn, gives rise to skepticism. , cynicism, leads to pathological isolation, moral failure and suicide.
Stratification is the differentiation of people in a hierarchical order, which is based on the unequal distribution between members of a group of social capital - rights, power, influence, opportunities, privileges and benefits, income, etc. There are three main forms of social stratification: economic, political and professional. Between strata and within them, movements of individuals are observed, which are called social mobility. Social mobility can be horizontal and vertical. Horizontal mobility is the movement from one social group to another, located in the same plane. Vertical - moving from one social level to another.
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People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in their status, is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. The unexpected rise of a person or his sudden fall is a favorite plot folk tales: The cunning beggar suddenly becomes a rich man, the poor prince becomes a king, and the hardworking Cinderella marries the prince, thereby increasing her status and prestige.
However, human history consists not so much of individual destinies as of the movements of large social groups. The landed aristocracy is being replaced by the financial bourgeoisie, low-skilled professions are being squeezed out of modern production representatives of the so-called “white collar” workers - engineers, programmers, operators of robotic systems. Wars and revolutions reshaped social structure society, raising some to the top of the pyramid and lowering others. Similar changes took place in Russian society after the October Revolution of 1917. They are still happening today, when the business elite is replacing the party elite.
Between ascent and descent there is a well-known asymmetry: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. Usually, ascent - the phenomenon is voluntary, and descent - forced.
Research shows that those with higher statuses prefer high positions for themselves and their children, but those with low statuses also want the same for themselves and their children. This is how it works in human society: everyone strives upward and no one strives downwards.
In this chapter we will look at essence, reasons, typology, mechanisms, channels And factors, influencing social mobility.
Exist two main types social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break down into subspecies And subtypes, which are closely related to each other.
Intergenerational mobility suggests that children achieve a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents. Example: a miner's son becomes an engineer.
Intragenerational mobility occurs where the same individual, without comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a workshop manager, a plant director, and a minister of the engineering industry.
The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, in the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor.
Vertical mobility implies movement from one stratum (estate, class, caste) to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Promotion is an example of upward mobility, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility.
Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another located at the same level. Examples include moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one’s own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction.
A type of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility . It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.
If a change of location is added to a change of status, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager came to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographical mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent place residence and found a job here, then this is migration. He changed his profession.
Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, and population density. In general, young people and men are more mobile than older people and women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.
Young people are characterized by professional mobility, adults - economic mobility, and older people - political mobility. Fertility rates are not equally distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he is born. Even if every son of a rich man follows in his father's footsteps, there will still be voids at the top of the social pyramid that are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan exact amount children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for occupying certain social positions in different classes is different.
Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers in the United States have 50% more children than they need to replace themselves. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should occur in modern society.
High and low fertility in different classes has the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata, like countries, can be overpopulated or underpopulated.
It is possible to propose a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish:
· individual mobility, when movement down, up or horizontally occurs in each person independently of others, and
· group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example after a social revolution old class yields dominant positions to a new class.
Individual mobility and group mobility are in a certain way connected with ascribed and achieved statuses. Individual mobility corresponds more to the achieved status, while group mobility corresponds more to the ascribed status.
Individual mobility occurs where and when the social significance of an entire class, estate, caste, rank, or category increases or decreases. The October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously had no recognized high position. The Brahmins became the highest caste as a result of a long and persistent struggle, and previously they were on a par with the Kshatriyas. IN Ancient Greece after the adoption of the constitution, most people were freed from slavery and rose up the social ladder, while many of their former masters fell down.
The transition from a hereditary aristocracy to a plutocracy (an aristocracy based on the principles of wealth) had the same consequences. In 212 AD e. Almost the entire population of the Roman Empire received the status of Roman citizens. Thanks to this, huge masses of people, previously considered inferior, increased their social status. The invasion of barbarians (Huns, Lobards, Goths) disrupted the social stratification of the Roman Empire: one after another, the old aristocratic families disappeared, and they were replaced by new ones. Foreigners founded new dynasties and new nobility.
Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. They are literally torn between dissimilar cultures and lifestyles. They do not know how to behave, dress, talk from the point of view of the standards of another class. Often adaptation to new conditions remains very superficial. A typical example is Molière's tradesman among the nobility.
These are the main types, types and forms (there are no significant differences between these terms) of social mobility. In addition to them, organized mobility is sometimes distinguished, when the movement of a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state a) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. Voluntary organized mobility includes the so-called socialist organizational set, public calls for Komsomol construction sites, etc. Involuntary organized mobility includes repatriation (resettlement) of small peoples and dispossession during the years of Stalinism.
It is necessary to distinguish from organized mobility structural mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs beyond the will and consciousness of individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people. In the 50-70s, the USSR carried out the reduction of small villages and their consolidation.
The concept " social mobility» was introduced into scientific circulation by P.A. Sorokin. He defined it as “any transition of an individual, a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.”For many sociologists, the phenomenon of mobility is closely related to ideas of social justice. This myth is actively circulated in the United States, proving to the world that the American state is a country of equal opportunities, in which every citizen has a chance to become president.
The systematic study of mobility began in the 1950s. Most sociologists have chosen a profession as an empirical indicator for analyzing ascent and descent along the social ladder. One of the most significant works V post-war period on mobility trends in the United States was a study by Elton F. Jackson and Harry D. Crocket published in 1964.
Among modern sociological concepts of mobility We can highlight the theory of M. Lipset and R. Bendix, who linked the development of industrial society with the expansion of vertical mobility. In their opinion, all industrial societies are characterized by a high degree of upward mobility. This is because, firstly, they have significant potential for unlimited social growth. There is an effect " safety valve”, with the help of which the energy of the most active and capable representatives of the social lower classes is switched. In other words, mobility performs a stabilizing function. Secondly, industrial society places high intellectual demands on individuals. Development individual qualities, regardless of the social status of their bearer, is a fundamental requirement of every society.
Mobility classifications
Horizontal and vertical mobility. Horizontal mobility involves social movement without changing social status. The cashier from the Perekrestok store becomes the cashier of the Kvartal store, and the manager of the Troika Dialog management company goes to work at management company Maxwell Capital for the same position. Vertical mobility, on the contrary, involves a change in status. The student is transferred to another course or expelled, and the worker is appointed as a foreman or fired.
Vertical social mobility can be upward or downward. Upward mobility is movement up the social ladder. In the army there is a clear system of military ranks: senior lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, colonel, etc., in universities there are teaching positions: assistant, lecturer, senior lecturer, associate professor, professor. Transition from one military rank moving up the social ladder or obtaining a higher position means upward mobility. And on the contrary, demotion to the rank and file, transfer to a lower position - downward.
Voluntary and forced mobility. An example of voluntary mobility is the life of the Prophet Muhammad. The founder of Islam, without hesitation, spent his property and the property of his first wife Khadija, who was much richer than him, on helping the poor and ransoming slaves. All this led to the fact that he himself soon turned from a wealthy Arab into a person whose standard of living was lower than many other members of his community. Thus, in terms of respect for his status, he rose among his fellow tribesmen as the leader of a religious community, but in terms of wealth, he fell down the social ladder. And he made these movements voluntarily.
An example of forced mobility is the mass migration of Muslims into Pakistan and the movement back into the Indian Republic of Hindus and Sikhs during the partition of former British India. This migration was a real disaster for the Indian peoples. People did not want to leave their homes, for which they paid with their lives. One Sikh boy who miraculously survived recalled how his father was cut alive by Muslims into 100 pieces. Fearing that their offspring would fall into the hands of Muslim fanatics, Sikhs burned their own children alive. According to some sources, the number of victims during the massacre that accompanied this exodus numbered up to 1 million people.
Rice. In the cities of former British India, engulfed in pogroms, mass cremation of the bodies of those killed during the resettlement took place. Often the corpses were simply burned in the streets.
There is a certain relationship between different types mobility. As a rule, upward mobility is voluntary, while downward mobility is forced. Most strive for material wealth and success in life. However, there are exceptions. In the 1990s. the comedy film “I Want to Go to Prison!” was popular in Russia, main character which different ways sought to go to prison. True, it was a Scandinavian prison, and its conditions were somewhat reminiscent of a sanatorium. It is therefore no coincidence that some homeless people in the West deliberately commit crimes before the onset of winter cold, hoping to spend this period in prison, where they can find not only a roof over their heads, but also food. In the spring, when the term of imprisonment ends, they are safely released.
Another example: downshifters are businessmen who quit a profitable business and moved to the countryside.
Individual and collective mobility. Individual mobility is a change in the status of a specific individual, while collective mobility is a change in the status of an entire group, a social stratum. A classic example was given by P.A. Sorokin: if one passenger is left overboard - individual mobility, if the whole ship with all the passengers goes down - then this is collective mobility.
Individual mobility can be intragenerational and intergenerational.
Intragenerational mobility is a change in the social status of an individual during his life. At 20 years old a person can have one status, at 30 - another. The term “career” is also used to refer to this type of mobility.
Intergenerational mobility is a comparison of an individual's status with that of their parents. This is a very interesting indicator that shows us whether children can develop the successes of their parents or, on the contrary, break the chain of failures that plague their family.
Sociologists talk about geographic mobility, when a person moves from one area to another. If the move is accompanied by a change labor activity, then the term “migration” is used. As an example, we can cite Russian-speaking repatriates who actually “saved” Israel. According to sociologists, over the past 20 years, 1,300 thousand Russian-speaking citizens have come to Israel. These people saved Israel economically, scientifically and demographically.
An important factor is religious mobility, i.e. change of religious affiliation. IN last years we can talk about an Islamic boom in Europe, when tens of thousands of native Europeans accept Islam.
Sexual mobility has become a popular topic in recent years. For example, in the Philippines, thousands of young people change their gender in the hope of finding a job. There are completely different reasons for gender reassignment in Russia.
Positive and bad influence mobility
Upward mobility allows a person not only to receive previously unavailable social benefits, but also contributes to his self-realization and provides him with more free time. A person, having achieved a degree of material independence, can go to trip around the world, he gains experience, establishes social connections. In other words, he lives a new, interesting life.
Even downward mobility can lead to positive consequences: a person begins to adequately consider his life goals, chooses a more interesting, but less paid job.
The negative results of mobility include the severance of ties with the previous environment. When climbing several steps of the social ladder, a person sometimes breaks with his old acquaintances, deliberately not noticing them. For him they remain in their “former life.” A person moves to a more prestigious area, changes habits and even beliefs. And that’s not all: having become a “stranger” among “his own,” he may not become a “friend” among “strangers” if the new social group refuses to accept a new member into its ranks.
Distance and scope of mobility
Mobility distance. Usually people move up the social ladder, overcoming step by step. A 1st year student becomes a 2nd year student, a senior lieutenant becomes a captain, a worker becomes a foreman, etc. However, this does not exclude a social elevator, when people climb several steps at once. The following can act as a social elevator: getting married, receiving an inheritance, heroic deeds in war, etc. Revolutions and coups d'état provide opportunities for a social lift. Sometimes extraordinary situations occur that immediately attract public attention. For example, in May 2012, Russian President V.V. Putin offered the head of the Uralvagonzavod workshop, Igor Kholmanskikh, the position of presidential plenipotentiary representative in the Ural federal district. I. Kholmanskikh is the same Ural resident who, during the days of protests in Moscow, promised V.V. Putin needs to come to the capital with “men” and understand the “framework of the law.”
The volume of mobility is all of an individual’s movements along the social ladder. In the Middle Ages, this volume was minimal. The boy, apprenticed to a master, could only dream of becoming a master himself at the end of his career. And nothing more.
Nevertheless, rising from the bottom up the social ladder is the dream of many. One of the richest people in Russia, Roman Abramovich, spent his childhood in relative poverty. Having entered college, he decided to earn his living by getting a job as a simple mechanic. Producer Joseph Prigozhy grew up in a poor family; he ate borscht only on holidays. And when I came to Moscow in 1985, I “shot” two-kopeck coins for bread. D. Medvedev proudly admitted that he was once a janitor and had to sweep the streets for a small fee. US President B. Obama in the early 1980s. He was also a professional not in the field of politics, working as a waiter at the Baskin Robbins cafe. In the early 1980s. Brad Pitt, a sex symbol of the 2000s, could be seen dressed as a huge chicken inviting passers-by to the Mexican restaurant El Polio Loco. Film star Sharon Stone worked at the cash register of a McDonald's restaurant in a small town in Ontario for three years. Before becoming a famous “rocker,” singer Sting managed to work as a road worker.
Open and closed societies
In the context of social mobility, all societies can be divided into open and closed.
Closed societies are those in which there is a rigid structure that prevents increased mobility. At the same time, it promotes stability. There is no antagonism between social groups; everyone knows their place. Such a society can exist for quite a long time until a powerful influence from outside occurs or the internal preconditions for revolution mature. An example is the events in Libya. M. Gaddafi, having created one of the most stable regimes in the Arab East, in which millions of the country's inhabitants were under the powerful tutelage of the state, nevertheless fell victim to the political intrigues of Western powers.
Open societies are those in which there is a moving social ladder, and there are no powerful barriers to advancement. Ruling class constantly replenished by the best representatives of the middle class and lower social classes. Most Western countries position themselves this way. However, in practice, the ruling strata usually strive to maintain maximum control over social benefits, putting forward barriers in the form of laws and customs to reduce opportunities for advancement for those from the lower classes. In this regard, sociologists are not inclined to overestimate the situation with equality of chances in the so-called open society. “For an entire century, the American class structure remained relatively unchanged in terms of being more open or closed,” says sociologist L. Duberman. A negative assessment of human capabilities in terms of social mobility was also given by sociologist D. Marceau in his book “Classes and Statuses in France.”
How open was Soviet society in terms of social mobility? Official propaganda claimed that in the USSR complete equality of chances for advancement and employment in all types of work for people from different social or national groups had been achieved or almost achieved. It all came down to the famous words of V.V. Mayakovsky: “All works are good, choose according to your taste.” At the same time, it was demagogically asserted that the most honorable profession is a worker. Journalists interviewed a worker in the workshop, in which he proudly declared that he belonged to “the most revolutionary class,” confirming this by saying that his son also dreams of becoming a worker. However, coming home in the evening, the same worker inspired his beloved son: you see my hands, black from work, at least become a man, study before it’s too late!!!”
Anecdote from the Soviet period
The grandson asks the general grandfather: Grandfather, when I grow up, can I become a major? - Of course you can. - And the colonel? - And you can be a colonel. - And the general? “If you try really hard, you’ll become a general.” - And the marshal? - No, grandson, it won’t work. - And why? — The marshal has his own grandson.
Those who idealize the Soviet past should know the social background of MGIMO students. There were practically no people from families of workers and peasants. On the other hand, the CPSU, the only monopoly ruling political party in the USSR, accepted workers willingly. There was a kind of reception plan, while for representatives of the intelligentsia there was a waiting list. Meanwhile, everyone understood that only a party card gives a person a start in life. It should be added that in the USSR there were unspoken instructions about who could occupy what position. Of all the factors, social origin came first, and only then nationality, gender, place of birth, etc.
Factors of social mobility
As we have seen, there are a number of factors that influence the distance and volume of mobility. These are: social origin, race, nationality, gender, place of birth, etc.
The law of sociology says: “capitalists are not born, but become.” Its essence is this: young people who have parents with high status, who gave them excellent starting opportunities in competition, are increasingly losing to those who do not have all this, but have determination and willpower. “Everyone admires willpower, because no one has it,” F. Nietzsche sneered, and in many ways he was right.
Sociological research has shown: in post-industrial society, constantly emerging Hi-tech lead to the emergence of new professions. Those, in turn, require more qualifications and better preparation, are decently paid and are more prestigious. As a consequence, education and training are becoming increasingly important factors in entry into higher strata. As a result, social mobility increases.
Throughout human history, education has been important factor mobility. It played a decisive role in ancient China, where competent officials enjoyed high status. “You can buy everything except knowledge,” says a Chinese proverb. Even the system of examinations itself, which determines the level of a person’s knowledge, the world owes to the Chinese.
Of course, history also knows illiterate people who reached the top of the social ladder. The founder of the Frankish Empire, Charlemagne, and the Prophet Muhammad were illiterate. However, these exceptions only confirm the general rule of the importance of education for upward mobility. Not by chance famous people, who had already reached certain heights, nevertheless sought to obtain an education. For example, the legendary army commander in the years Civil War CM. Budyonny, being a marshal, did not hesitate to attend events organized at the Military Academy. Frunze special courses for military leaders.
After World War II, in a turbulent economic growth In both Western and socialist countries, the idea of social mobility “through education” has been formed.
Another joke from Soviet times
A father and son are walking along the beach, and there are only one around beautiful women. And the father says to his son: “Son, study well! And all this will be yours."
It should be noted that changes in a person’s social status are directly dependent on his use of free time. For example, time spent studying or improving skills contributes to social advancement.