« New rhetoric identifies the following as fundamental rhetorical figures: metaphor - semantic substitution by similarity; metonymy - substitution by contiguity, association, causality; synecdoche - substitution based on quantitative relations (plurality - singularity) or involvement, inclusion. And if literary thinking is metaphorical, then film thinking is metonymic by its very nature.
According to A.A. Potebny, " Each time a poetic image is perceived and enlivened by the understander, it tells him something different and greater than what is immediately contained in it. Thus, poetry is always allegory... in the broad sense of the word». Therefore, it is right to say that a number of fundamental rhetorical figures determine the artistic and figurative essence of thinking in different types and genres of art.
Rhetorical figures are classified depending on the type of deviation operation used (this principle of classification was first proposed by the “Mu” group): 1) from a sign (word) - morphological; 2) from the grammatical code - syntactic; 3) from meaning - semantic; 4) from the principles of thinking - logical.
The first type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the morphological norm (a sign, a word undergo partial or complete transformations, replacements, deformations). Let us outline the main varieties of this type of deviation.
Epenthesis (insert) - a rhetorical figure that arises by adding an extra word in the middle of a sign (spoken word). So, in Russian vernacular they say: “ like», « for the sake of" An artist can use this figure to speech characteristics hero or creation of a mocking, ironic author's speech. This artistic medium is also used in the visual arts, for example, when creating a caricature portrait or caricature.
Synonymy- with the same signified, the constituent elements of the signifier are replaced by others. So, in “The Bronze Horseman” A.S. Pushkin the usual phrase “ cold body"replaces with poetically expressive" cold corpse" Special cases of stylistic synonymy include archaisms - the replacement of a modern concept with an outdated one that has fallen out of use. In Pushkin’s “Prophet” we read:
With fingers as light as a dream
He touched my eyes.
Using elements of the order system in modern architecture, refusal of perspective in painting are also examples of archaisms.
Neologisms- newly formed words. For example, using the neologism “ thunderous goblet» F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem “Spring Thunderstorm”.
The rhetorical figure is turning text into a set of sounds , the meaning of which is not perceived, although the sounds are articulate. In this case, the redundancy of speech is not enough and full-fledged artistic communication does not occur, because reduction (return to any “zero stage”) turns out to be impossible; abstruseness arises - words devoid of meaning, as in the poem by A.E. Twisted "Heights":
Eww
ias
oa
oasieya
oa
This rhetorical device—the destruction of the traditional sign system and the creation of a new one—is widely used in abstract painting and concrete music.
Quoting foreign words can also be a rhetorical figure. Its use by L.N. is well known. Tolstoy in "War and Peace". Other “foreign” inclusions are also artistically expressive. For example, dialectisms in “Quiet Don” by M. Sholokhov, jargon in “Cavalry” by I. Babel.
The joining of different linguistic layers also occurs when using the eclectic style in architecture.
Pun- a play on words, the use of polysemy of words, homonymy (complete coincidence of signifiers when the signifieds are different) or sound similarity of words to achieve artistic expressiveness and comedy.
As a means of expressiveness, puns are used not only in the comedy genre. M. Gorky, for example, resorts to it in one of the episodes of his epic novel “The Life of Klim Samgin.” One day his comrades flogged Boris Varavka, considering him a sneaker and an informer. Klim Samgin did not like Boris. Having somehow caught a “belated beetle and handed it to Boris with two fingers, Klim said:
- Here, insect.
« Pun, writes Gorky, appeared by itself, suddenly and made Klim laugh...».
In fine art, a pun is found, for example, in some paintings by S. Dali, which can be read differently from different viewing angles: people against the backdrop of an ancient castle - a bust of Voltaire.
Anagram- a rhetorical figure formed by rearrangement at the morphological level (letters in a word). This figure was first used by the Greek grammarian Lycophron (3rd century BC). Examples of anagrams: " murmur - ax"; as well as nicknames such as Chariton Mackentin - Antioch Cantemir.
Palindrome(“reversal”) - reverse rearrangements, phrases, stanzas of verse that are read equally in both directions (from left to right and from right to left). Examples: " I come with the sword of the judge"(G.R. Derzhavin) or in V. Khlebnikov’s poem “Razin”:
Lament cliff
Morning to the devil
We Nizari flew to Razin
Flows and is gentle, is gentle and flows
The Volga wonders are carried by the cramped view of the corners
Deer turned blue
In a certain sense, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, standing right on the river bank, can be considered a palindrome in architecture. Reflected in the river, it doubles and is visually perceived in unity with its reverse image in the water surface. In addition, this temple has axial symmetry and is “the same” from left to right and from right to left.
The second type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the syntactic norm (in this case, the author influences the form of the sentence and changes its grammatical structure). The zero level of the syntactic norm for this type of rhetorical figures is based on a grammatical norm that defines the structural relationships between morphemes. According to the findings of linguist R.O. Jacobson, the order of words in many languages reflects the logic of the content of the sentence: verbs are arranged in accordance with the temporal sequence of events, indicating the “main character of the message”, the subject dominates the object. Violation of these “natural” syntactic and grammatical features of the message has the meaning of a rhetorical figure.
Ellipsis- an artistic and expressive omission in speech of parts of a sentence, which, due to the redundancy of information contained in the statement, are implied and can be mentally restored. So, V.A. Zhukovsky in the poem “The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” omitted the verb “ let's turn»:
We sat down in ashes; cities - to dust;
Swords include sickles and plows.
Or another example. I.A. Krylov writes: “ Not so: the sea doesn’t burn", and the expression " it wasn't there».
When a word or other elementary meaningful semantic unit disappears from a phrase, its intonation changes, which is expressed in written text by ellipsis. An example of such a rhetorical figure in painting is the painting by V.I. Surikov’s “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, where there is no execution scene itself - there is a complete plot reduction.
An example of ellipsis in drama is the dialogue between Elena Andreevna and Astrov in the play by A.P. Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya". The excited speech of the characters is abrupt:
« Elena Andreevna. No... It’s already decided... And that’s why I look at you so bravely, that my departure has already been decided...
Astrov. How strange... We knew each other and suddenly for some reason... we would never see each other again. So everything in the world...»
In order to be able to perceive the meaning of a text from which something has been omitted, the redundancy of that text must be great enough to compensate for the missing element.
Abbreviation of syntactic marks - a rhetorical figure similar to asyndeton (omission of conjunctions: “ I came, I saw, I conquered..."). The French poet G. Apollinaire was the first to allow the exclusion of syntactic signs from a poetic text. Later, many poets and prose writers began to use this rhetorical figure. But even when using this rhetorical figure, it is unacceptable to violate the boundaries of redundancy, since syntactic uncertainty due to abbreviation of punctuation marks can result in semantic uncertainty. In cinema, “punctuation marks” (dissolves, darkening, etc.) were excluded from his film “8/2” by F. Fellini in the transition shots from real events to memories or scenes imagined by the hero. This gave the film additional expressiveness.
Amplification - enumeration and piling up. A striking example of this rhetorical figure is the following stanza from “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin:
More cupids, devils, snakes
They jump and make noise on stage;
Still tired lackeys
They sleep on fur coats at the entrance;
They haven't stopped stomping yet,
Blow your nose, cough, shush, clap;
Still outside and inside
Lanterns are shining everywhere;
Still frozen, the horses fight,
Bored with my harness,
And the coachmen, around the lights,
They scold the gentlemen and beat them in the palm of their hands:
And Onegin went out;
He goes home to get dressed.
Amplification is used in the paintings of I. Bosch and S. Dali.
Syllepsis- a rhetorical figure that arises through an artistic and expressive violation of the rules for agreeing morphemes or syntagmas by gender, number, person or tense. V. Hugo, for example, wrote the following lines:
You wake up in the morning and the whole family
You are hugged and kissed by: mother, sister, daughter!
Syllepsis as a replacement of one person by another can be found in “Essays on Bursa” by N.G. Pomyalovsky. One of the students, Pyotr Teterin, signs for receiving government boots: “ Petra Tetenry received boots».
In the theater, an additional artistic effect arises from the performance of a child’s role by a “travesty” actress, female roles by a man, or male roles by a woman.
Chiasmus- this is a rhetorical figure that sets a certain order in one sentence, and in another its reverse (mirror) symmetry arises; a compositional figure in which, from two sentences built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence is constructed in the reverse sequence of members. Let's remember Pushkin's lines:
Secrets of the great POLYGLOTS: language BARRIER and CREATIVITY
Shushpanov Arkady Nikolaevich
A person who has chosen to engage in a serious, creative business faces many barriers. One of them - language. How to overcome it faster?
The experience of famous polyglots is collected and systematized into just a few principles. Anyone who has read the book, using them, can, like from a constructor, make personal language learning method.
The book is addressed to readers who are faced with the task of mastering foreign language, as well as those interested in issues of creativity.
The less we love a woman,
The easier it is for her to like us...
Here the first sentence is constructed according to the scheme: “subject - predicate”, and the second, on the contrary, “predicate - subject”.
Parallelism - one of the lines repeats the other in its syntactic structure. In “Reflections at the Front Entrance” N.A. Nekrasov writes:
Why do you need this crying sorrow?
What do you need these poor people?
Rhetorical figure tmesis occurs when morphemes or syntagmas that are usually closely related to each other are separated by other elements inserted between them. V. Hugo, for example, in the poem “The Ungrateful King” writes:
You commanded in your pride, -
Shame on you! - so that day and night you
Your monk praised in Latin
And in Castilian - your judge.
Or from A.A. Blok in the poem “Humiliation” we read:
In a yellow, winter, huge sunset
The bed has sunk (so luxurious!)..
Tmesis in cinema is expressed in the form of an unexpected montage insert between two related episodes, and in painting it occurs in certain types of collage and caricature.
Inversion- manifests itself in a change in the order of the subject, predicate, circumstances of time and place, as well as in similar operations relating to such pairs as “verb - adverb” or “noun - adjective as a definition”:
Oh, sad, sad was my soul (P. Verlaine).
Inversion, chiasmus and other rhetorical figures, built on the “game” of the order and arrangement of words or other signs, make it possible to create a feeling of speech space and help the recipient to feel the sign system of this art. On this basis, artistic searches arise, similar to the “topographic experiments” of S. Mallarmé, G. Apollinaire, M. Butor.
Rhetorical figures of the second type, in a specifically refracted form, are also used in other artistic and communication systems, for example, in cinema.
Rhetorical figures of the third type (tropes) - are built on the basis of “semantic shifts” , replacement of one semantic content with another, deviation from the “zero meaning”. In the trope, the basic meaning of the sign changes; the word is assigned a meaning that does not coincide with its direct meaning. The trope changes the content of the word, preserving a piece of its original meaning. This kind of semantic rhetorical operations are based on the fact that any phenomenon can be divided on two grounds: 1) the component parts of the phenomenon: river - source, channel, mouth; 2) varieties of the phenomenon: river - flat, mountain, underground. These two fundamental semantic relationships underlie the tropes to which, according to R.O. Jacobson, predisposed to the realistic school of art.
Based on the transition from the particular to the general, from part to whole, from lesser to greater, from species to genus, the rhetorical figures of synecdoche and antonomasia arise. Generalizing (expanding) synecdoche - using more instead of less. For example, they say about people: “ mere mortals“However, this expression can also be legitimately applied to animals. Generalizing synecdoche makes speech philosophical. Narrowing synecdoche - using less instead of more. For example, in “The Bronze Horseman” by A.S. Pushkin's word " flags" is used instead of the phrase " merchant ships flying national flags»: « All flags will visit us..." Narrowing synecdoche occurs in poetic speech even when the singular replaces the plural. For example, in Pushkin’s poem “Poltava”: “ Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts».
In cinema, synecdoche as a rhetorical figure is used in close-ups (“blow-up”), when part of an object seems to personify its whole (the image of guns is the image of the battleship Potemkin in the film of the same name by S. Eisenstein). In sculpture, the bust, and in painting, the portrait often appears as a synecdoche.
Antonomasia - replacement of a person’s name with an object related to him, or a common noun with a proper one. So, in “Mozart and Salieri” A.S. Pushkin calls Michelangelo " creator of the Vatican", and in one of the poems he calls the doctor an aesculapius.
One of the main rhetorical figures in the service of poetics and aesthetics - metaphor- the establishment in an artistic message of a semantic connection by similarity, a change in the semantic content of a word (more broadly, a sign in general), a reference to both its direct and figurative meaning. According to the figurative expression of the Mu group, a metaphor is a small semantic scandal. How " transfer of names by analogy", it serves as a powerful factor in the enrichment of concepts. The basis for creating a metaphor is the similarity manifested in the intersection of two meanings of a word or other sign. The “Mu” group, defining the general trope of rhetoric, notes that “metaphor attributes to the union of two sets those characteristics that, strictly speaking, are inherent only in the intersection of these sets... Metaphor... seems to push the boundaries of the text, creates a feeling of its “openness.” "makes it more capacious." At the same time, the “Mu” group reveals the presence of visual metaphors in painting. A striking example of a metaphor in a literary text is the figurative definition of a person proposed by B. Pascal: “ Man is just a reed, the weakest of nature's creations, but he is a thinking reed» .
Bringing together various items, a metaphor helps to better describe one of them. It is no coincidence that it is often formalized using conjunctions “ How», « like», « as if”, facilitating comparison and establishing similarity or identity. These are the stereotypical comparisons: “ clear as day b", " one like a finger».
Rhetorical figures are in a certain sense “false,” and no one takes the identification they contain literally. An example of such a “false” but expressive metaphor is a line from G. Heine:
My mouth is so dry, it’s like I ate the sun...
Interesting thoughts about the nature of metaphor were expressed in his time by the poet I.L. Selvinsky at a seminar on poetic skills at the Literary Institute. M. Gorky SP USSR, of which the author of these lines was a participant. Selvinsky noted the existence of metaphors of Eastern and Western types, belonging to different artistic traditions. The Eastern tradition assumes, as a rule, one point of similarity between the objects being compared. For example, say " the girl is as slim as a telegraph pole“Within the framework of the Eastern tradition, Selvinsky believes, is quite acceptable. In the traditions of Russian and European poetry in general, a metaphor must bear at least three points of similarity with the phenomena being compared. Following this tradition, it is right to say: “a girl is like a birch tree.” The similarity here is that both compared objects are slender, young, flexible, spring-like, fresh and joyful.
Reasoning by I.L. Selvinsky’s works are valuable in that, using the example of metaphor, they show the relationship of rhetorical figures to the deep structures of artistic thinking, fixing such an important parameter as national identity. Selvinsky showed the features of the expressive metaphor of the European tradition using a phrase describing a chandelier hidden in a gauze cover for the summer: “ The chandelier was like a cocoon" There are three types of similarity here: external - a white shell, internal - something is contained in the shell, existential - the temporary state that will be changed, and the internal will be revealed and revived.
In Aeschylus we read: “ May we not experience that for which there is great suffering, for which the great sea is plowed with a sword" Analyzing this metaphor, literary critic O. Freidenberg writes: “ The image of “plowing with a sword” leads to mythology: the semantic identity of agricultural and military tools is known. The great sea, plowed by the sword, is the sea on which Paris sailed with Helen to Troy, the sea of love that caused the war of nations.
Mythological images continue to speak in their own specific language. But they “allegorize” themselves, giving a conceptual meaning: “May we avoid the harmful consequences of love.” The ancient “different rendering” is that the image, without losing its character (plowing the sea with a sword), receives a meaning that does not at all correspond to its meaning (the disastrous results of passion). This new meaning begins to convey the semantics of the image “otherwise”, in a different way, on a completely different mental plane - abstractly, as if the thought reads one thing and says another» .
M. Proust believed that metaphor is a privileged expression of a deep poetic vision, giving style a “kind of eternity.” This idea can be confirmed by an example of a cinematic metaphor from A. Rene’s film “Hiroshima, my love”: at first the viewer sees the body of a murdered Japanese man, his arms are outstretched, this image is montagedly compared with the image of the body of a soldier of the Nazi army lying in the same position. One can also recall other film metaphors: in S. Eisenstein’s “Strike” the types of carnage introduced into the episode of a police attack, or in C. Chaplin’s “Modern Times” shots depicting a flock of sheep are edited into the picture of the crowd. Examples of metaphor in monumental sculpture include the sphinx pairing a man and a lion, and the centaur pairing a man and a horse.
The general aesthetic universality of rhetorical figures is evidenced by the definition of architecture as a metaphor made of stone, given by the Italian theorist of rhetoric and poetics of the 17th century. E. Tesauro.
Metaphor, the queen of rhetorical figures, also found its place in the system of Indian rhetoric and poetics in the figure of rupaka (“giving appearance”)178. And it is not surprising, because Indian poetry is metaphorically rich. Thus, in Kalidasa we read: “ Your fingers are stems, the shine of your nails is flowers, your hands are vines, and all of you are spring beauty, open to our gaze." The distinctions between rupaka and metaphor that P. Grinzer outlines in his work are not sufficient to not recognize these figures as corresponding to each other, especially if we proceed from the broad understanding of metaphor proposed in the classification of rhetorical figures by the Mu group.
A rhetorical figure close to metaphor is comparison— identification of a common feature when comparing two phenomena. For example, A.S. Pushkin’s poem “Anchar” contains the following comparison:
Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
Standing - alone in the whole universe.
Montage juxtaposition is often used in cinematography.
Metonymy(literally renaming) - establishing a connection between phenomena by contiguity, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are revealed, an allegorical designation of the subject of speech. So, A.S. Pushkin " the hiss of foamy glasses"replaces foaming wine poured into glasses. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content by the capacity, resulting in a transfer of the name based on the contiguity of meanings. For example, sometimes the material from which a thing is made replaces the designation of the thing itself. At A.S. Griboedova Famusov recalls: “ Not on silver, I ate on gold».
The French rhetorician Du Marsay revealed the difference between metonymy and synecdoche. The first, as he believes, involves the comparison of objects that exist independently of each other (“ with metonymy, the replaced and the replacing concepts do not have a common semantic part"), and the second is the rhetorical pairing of objects that constitute some unity and correlate as a part with the whole.
Researchers also note the existence of metonymic epithets (“ The luminary of day shines" - M.V. Lomonosov), metonymic periphrases (“ Great Peter's daughter" - M.V. Lomonosov).
Coats of arms and other symbolic sign formations have a metonymic character (the coat of arms is a metonymy of the state). Collage in painting gives rise to a metonymic relationship between the glued part and the painted part of the canvas. Yu.M. writes about this. Lotman: " The drawn and pasted objects belong to different and incompatible worlds according to the following characteristics: reality / illusory, two-dimensional / three-dimensional, iconic / unfamiliar, etc. Within a number of traditional cultural contexts, their meeting within the same text is absolutely prohibited. And that is why their combination creates that exceptionally strong semantic effect that is inherent in the trope».
Oxymoron- close proximity in the syntagm of two signs or words with contradictory meanings, direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. These are " black Sun"in the finale" Quiet Don» M.A. Sholokhov or " the splendor of shamelessness" - a capacious description of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner's novel "The City."
Repeat— repetition of sound, symbolic (verbal), synonymous is carried out in the name of artistically expressive, emotionally inspiring and logically persuasive goals. Repetition gives an artistic statement strengthening, changing and increasing meaning. This is, for example, a repetition from A.S. Pushkin:
I'm driving, driving in an open field;
Bell ding-ding-ding...
Scary, scary involuntarily
Among the unknown plains!
In the film by L. Buñuel “The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie,” the same scene of receiving guests is repeated many times in the dreams of different characters. Then this scene is realized in reality.
A rhetorical figure of repetition in architecture is, for example, the colonnade of the wings of the Kazan Cathedral in Leningrad.
In Sanskrit poetic culture, the rhetorical figure of repetition corresponds to the figure of avritti, which has three varieties: repetition of words with a change in meaning, repetition of meaning with a change in words, and repetition of both words and meaning.
The fourth type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the logical norm. For figures of this type, the “zero level” may be a “protocol” speech that certifies the truth of the facts disputed by the rhetorical figure. Rhetorical figures of the fourth type are built on the basis of the conscious use of polysemy (multiple meanings of a word or sign) for artistic expressive purposes.
Antithesis- opposition of different, sharply contrasting phenomena. It is built according to the logical formula “ A is not A " Antithesis is especially expressive when it is made up of metaphors. For example, G. R. Derzhavin resorts to such an antithesis in the poem “God”:
I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god!
Overlay- the use of a word simultaneously in a literal and figurative, “figurative” meaning. Its most common form is superposition, which is based on two meanings of a word expressed in one use. So, in V. Hugo we read:
And they remember you, sorting through the ashes
Your hearth and your heart!
The specificity of the imposition here is that the expression “ashes of one’s heart” is perceived metaphorically. At the same time, when perceiving the text, the reader takes into account the direct meaning of the word “ashes” in the context of “ashes of one’s hearth.”
Superimposition as a rhetorical figure is also present in other forms of art, for example in cinema, in frames shot with double exposure. In this case, one image is superimposed on another and forms a new thought that is not contained in any of the interacting images.
The quantitative (exaggerating) nature of rhetorical figures is inherent hyperbole. Roman orator and theorist of eloquence M.F. Quintilian defined hyperbole as an appropriate deviation from the true state of affairs. It involves a maximum increase in the action, properties, and size of an object for artistic expressive purposes. When N.V. Gogol states in Taras Bulba that “ a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper", he uses hyperbole as a rhetorical figure of organization artistic speech. Sometimes hyperbole appears in combination with metaphor (“ This cat is a tiger"). Among the ancient Indian rhetorical figures (alankar) there is a figure similar to the hyperbole dating back to ancient rhetoric - this is atishaya (exaggeration) and its variety - atishayokti (exaggerated statement). This figure is born when there is a desire to describe some property (of a subject) that goes beyond the ordinary. Yes, shine and whiteness women's clothing and the female body, indistinguishable in the radiance of moonlight, is figuratively conveyed in “Kalidasa” with the help of this rhetorical figure: “ When women go on a date wearing wreaths of white jasmine, anointing their bodies with sandalwood ointment, and wearing a linen dress, they cannot be distinguished in the moonlight».
But in order not to violate the aesthetic measure in art, as Pseudo-Longinus rightly noted, the artist “ it is necessary to know the limit to which in each individual case the hyperbole can be brought».
Examples of hyperbole in architecture: the grandiose pyramid of Cheops, because for the practical purpose of burial and memorial fixation of the grave, a mound or crypt is sufficient; entrance gate hyperbola - Triumphal Arch at the same time symbolizes the greatness of the deeds of those in whose honor it was created.
IN litotes The quantitative, but already downplaying, nature of rhetorical operations also appears. Litota reduces the phenomenon, speaks about less in order to say about more. Litotes are: miniature - in painting, hut on chicken legs - in architecture.
Brought to the limit, litotes turns into silence ( The best way to say less is to say nothing at all). Silence can also be hyperbolic in nature: due to strong emotions, speech ends in silence, and written text ends in ellipsis. Sudden cessation of speech - interruption or temporary cessation - suspension. In temporary forms of art, suspension can be expressed not only in silence, but also in freeze frames (cinema) or in a silent scene (theater). A well-known example of such silence is a silent scene in the comedy by N.V. Gogol "The Inspector General". The gendarme reports the arrival of the real auditor, and then follows the author’s remark: “The spoken words strike everyone like thunder. The sound of amazement unanimously emanates from the ladies' lips; the whole group, having suddenly changed their position, remains petrified.”
Allegory- allegory, transfer of meanings from one circle of phenomena to another, transfer by similarity from the literal meaning to the non-literal meaning of a judgment, thought or an entire system of judgments. Thus, in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” Boyan’s playing of the harp is conveyed through an allegory:
Then ten falcons were launched into the flock of swans;
Whose falcon flew, the song was first sung:
Whether old Yaroslav, or brave Mstislav...
(translation by V. Zhukovsky).
In the finale of I. Bergman’s film “The Seventh Seal”, in a traditional allegorical form (skeleton with a scythe), death appears to the heroes and takes them away from life. And in “Strawberry Field” by the same director, the dial of a street clock without hands appears as an allegory of the end of times in the dream of the sick hero.
In the fable, an allegorical deviation from the logical norm occurs through personification (the king is a lion) or through a narrowing synecdoche (the cunning one is a fox, the hard worker is an ant).
Euphemism- replacement of rude, forbidden, indecent or overly harsh expression with a softer, more acceptable ethically, socially, aesthetically. In this case, the meaning of the euphemism is preserved, but random semantic shades are added to it. So, in one of the poems by E.A. Baratynsky uses the less harsh expression “abode of night” to designate “the grave”, “the next world”, thereby achieving greater artistic expressiveness.
The figure of euphemism is widely used in cinema.
Among the ancient peoples, there were taboos prohibiting mentioning this or that phenomenon, so it was necessary to give concepts about them using allegorical expressions or euphemism. It can be assumed that allegory and euphemism are the oldest rhetorical figures that arose even before the development of artistic consciousness itself.
Antiphrasis differs from irony in the absence of a comedic element in criticism. An example of this rhetorical figure is when a deplorable point of view is said to be: “ Good position!»
Negation- a rhetorical figure used to figurative characteristics a phenomenon “from the opposite”, by communicating what it is not. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov characterizes his lyrical hero as follows:
No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
A still unknown chosen one,
Like him, a wanderer driven by the world,
But only with a Russian soul.
Using rhetorical figures of the fourth type, the authors of a literary text, deliberately breaking the logical connection and even sometimes mocking the logic of reality, in a certain sense, pay tribute to it, because they take advantage of the redundancy of information about it. For example, " a knife without a blade that lacks a handle"(G.K. Lichtenberg) is an object that exists only in language, through which we get the opportunity to see a special reality.
Rhetorical figures provide such a paradoxically unexpected combination of initial signs and words, in which a dialectical leap occurs and a qualitatively new thought arises, which is not directly contained in any of the original signs and does not arise from their simple extra-rhetorical addition.
Attaching a global-philosophical, universal-existential meaning to rhetorical figures, Tesauro believed that they constitute the very basis of the thinking mechanism of that genius that spiritualizes both man and the Universe. These ideas are continued in modern views on rhetoric, as a result of which the actual artistic significance of rhetorical figures is underestimated. Correctly noting the presence of tropes in science, Yu.M. Lotman makes a broad conclusion that they “ belong to creativity in general»: « ...tropes are not an external decoration, a kind of application imposed on thought from the outside - they constitute the essence of creative thinking... their sphere is also wider than art. It belongs to creativity in general. So, for example, all attempts to construct spatial physical models of elementary particles, etc., are rhetorical figures (tropes). And just as in poetry, in science, an irregular convergence often acts as an impetus for the formulation of a new pattern.».
In general, this is true, but with the only caveat that in science, tropes and rhetorical figures are an additional, optional means. In art they are indispensable, they are “the very essence”, figures of figurative thinking, and not of any creative thinking.
The power of rhetorical figures lies in the fact that, while being carriers of conceptual meaning, they at the same time have a visual nature. Thus, it is rhetorical figures that create a “bridge” in our thinking, a jumper between the activities of the left and right hemispheres, one of which provides conceptual, and the other visual, concrete-sensory thinking. This duality, the ambivalence of rhetorical figures (conceptuality and “visibility”, conceivability, concrete sensibility) allows them to live in both verbal (prose, poetry) and fine arts (painting, sculpture), as well as in its other types built on the interaction of visual and verbal principles (theater, cinema, etc.). Through the intonational side of their verbal nature and through the closeness of its concrete-sensual side, rhetorical figures turn out to be significant for musical thinking.
« In the system of poetic language, figures and tropes are the main nodes in which the energy tension of the stylistic body of the text is concentrated“, rightly notes M.Ya. Polyakov. To read rhetorical figures, the main thing is to understand what figurative meaning receives this sign formation in this context.
So, with the help of these four types of rhetorical figures, the artist violates the “zero stage” of speech, thus creating artistic speech that conveys artistic meaning and carries a specifically aesthetic impact.”
Borev Yu. Aesthetics.
Illustration from the Internet.
POETIC LANGUAGE (continued)
The next section of this chapter is devoted to the second group artistic means, with the help of which a poetic image is born. These are special ways of constructing sentences - syntactic (stylistic) figures of speech.
ANADIPLOSIS (from the Greek “repetition”) - repetition of the last word (group of words) of the previous sentence at the beginning of the next one:
Oh, spring, without end and without edge,
An endless and endless dream! (A. Blok)
ANAPHOR (from the Greek “anaphora” - bringing up) - repetition of identical elements at the beginning of sentences or lines. There are different types of it:
1.sound (repetition of identical sounds):
Bridges destroyed by thunderstorms,
A coffin from a washed-out cemetery. (A. Pushkin)
2. morphemic (repetition of identical morphemes):
The black-eyed girl
Black-maned horse! (M. Lermontov)
3. lexical (repetition of identical words):
It was not in vain that the winds blew,
It was not in vain that the storm came. (S. Yesenin)
4. syntactic (repetition of the same syntactic constructions, that is, parallelism):
Do I wander along the noisy streets,
Do I enter a crowded temple,
Am I sitting among crazy youths,
I indulge in my dreams. (A. Pushkin)
5. strophic (repetition of the same words at the beginning of stanzas). Examples are from M. Lermontov (“When the yellowing field is worried”), from K. Simonov (“Wait for me”).
EPIPHOR - repetition of words at the end of lines:
Sun in the morning in the well of lakes
I looked - there was no month...
It dangled its legs over the hill,
Clicked - there is no month... (S. Yesenin)
If the same words are repeated in the middle of the line, then you have another figure - SIMPLOCA:
We have a place for young people everywhere,
Old people are respected everywhere. (V. Lebedev-Kumach)
ANTITHESIS (from the Greek “antithesis”) is an opposition that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech and feelings.
The basis of antithesis is antonyms (Greek “anti” - against, “onyma” - name) - words with the opposite meaning:
Memory has this property:
After the harshest adversity
The BAD is quickly forgotten,
And GOOD things live long. (K. Vanshenkin)
Each word, when encountered with its opposite meaning, is revealed more fully. A striking example of the use of this technique in poetry is the poems of Francois Villon, read by him at a poetry competition at the court of Charles of Orleans, who loved word games. Translated by Ilya Erenburg:
I'm dying of thirst over the stream.
I laugh through my tears and work while playing.
Wherever you go, everywhere is my home,
A foreign land to me is my native country.
I know everything - I know nothing.
Among the people I understand most clearly,
Who calls the swan a raven?
I doubt the obvious, I believe in a miracle.
Naked as a worm, more magnificent than all gentlemen,
I am accepted by everyone, expelled from everywhere.
Types of antonyms:
1) different roots (good - bad, clean - dirty),
2) single-rooted (kind - unkind, social - antisocial),
3) contextual, acquiring the opposite meaning only in a specific text, as, for example, in Derzhavin:
Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin.
Here the contrast is between “dishes” (a symbol of abundance) and “coffin” (a symbol of death), although in ordinary speech they are not antonyms at all.
GRADATION - a chain of homogeneous members with a gradual increase (called climax) or decrease (anticlimax) of significance or feelings:
“I came, I saw, I conquered”, the famous phrase of Caesar, is a gradation-climax.
An example of an anti-climax gradation:
Nobody will give us deliverance,
Neither god, nor king, nor hero.
("International")
INVERSION is a violation of the usual word order, when the desired word is placed in an unusual place for it. If the poet wants to emphasize the importance of something, he places the desired word at the beginning of the line or at the end, making it logically stressed. Inversion examples:
a) the definition comes after the word being defined:
I am sitting behind bars in the RAW dungeon... (A. Pushkin)
B) adverb (adverb) comes after the main word:
In the wild north stands LONELY... (M. Lermontov)
C) predicate before subject:
The forest drops its crimson headdress... (A. Pushkin)
OXYMORON (OXYMORON) - a combination of words with opposite meanings - in fact, it is a paradoxical-sounding antithesis:
And the impossible is possible
The long road is easy. (A. Blok)
An oxymoron can be found in the titles of works: “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky, “The Living Corpse” by L. Tolstoy, “Dead Souls” by N. Gogol, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev. Poets love this figure, as it immediately attracts the attention of readers with its paradox and unusualness:
We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,
And the gift of divine visions. (A. Blok)
***
Mother!
Your son is beautifully sick!
Mother!
His heart is on fire. (V. Mayakovsky)
PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS (SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM) help to combine disparate details into a single image.
This is: a) the same construction of sentences following one another:
I called you, but you didn't look back,
I shed tears, but you did not condescend. (A. Blok)
B) compositional parallelism, based on the similarity of plot lines or parts of the composition: for example, a description of the autumn thaw is followed by a description of a sad mood;
C) chiasmus - when in neighboring sentences the second is built in the reverse sequence of parts:
Here Pushkin's exile began
And Lermontov's exile ended. (A. Akhmatova)
***
Spanish grandee, like a thief,
Waiting for the night and afraid of the moon. (A. Pushkin)
D) negative parallelism is especially loved in folk songs:
It's not the cold winds that rustle,
It’s not quicksand that runs, -
The grief rises again
Like an evil black cloud.
Modern poets also use such constructions:
I'm not lost
But poo anyway.
I'm not cold
But don't put out the fire.
I'm not blind
But give me your hand.
I haven't weakened
But have pity on me.
(M. Sopin. “The Field of My Fate”, M.: “Contemporary”, 1991)
PARTELLATION (French “ragcelle” from Latin “particle”) is an expressive figure of speech when a sentence is divided into parts as independent sentences. With the help of intonation, the most important parts for the author are highlighted. An example from A. Tvardovsky in the second quatrain of the example:
But if you happen somehow,
Out of stupidity, out of early youth,
You decide to take a shameful path,
Forgetting about honor, duty and calling:
You cannot support a comrade in trouble.
Turn someone's grief into fun.
Cheat in work. Lie. Offend your mother.
To equal glory with an unkind friend -
Then before you - there is only one testament to you:
Just remember, boy, whose son you are.
Purposes of parcellation:
- focusing on the main thing in the image;
- selection important details;
- emotional strengthening of the text’s impact on the reader;
- creating the effect of surprise;
- contrast enhancement.
An example of parcellation from A. Griboyedov:
And all the Kuznetsky Bridge, and the eternal French,
Where do fashion come to us, both authors and muses:
Destroyers of pockets and hearts!
When the Creator will deliver us
From their hats! caps! and stilettos! and pins!
And book and biscuit shops!
HYPENSION is a discrepancy between the end of the sentence and the end of the line. This creates an additional pause within the verse. It is interesting that in folk poetry there is almost no transference - it is characteristic mainly of the author's speech. There are:
A) line hyphen:
Tell me that from everywhere
It blows over me with joy,
That I don’t know myself that I will
Sing - but only the song is ripening. (A. Fet)
B) syllable transfer is sharper, but also more expressive. In M. Svetlov’s “Grenada,” the break in a word seems to scream about the sudden death of the hero:
And the dead lips whispered: Gren...
Yes, to the distant region, to the sky-high reaches
My friend left and took the song away.
Daniil Kharms masterfully uses this technique in comic children's poems:
Do you know that
Do you know that pa,
Do you know that you
What's my dad's
Were there forty sons?
REPEAT is one of the most common stylistic figures, whose main goal is to emphasize the most important words or parts.
An excellent example of this technique is in a poem by Yakov Kozlovsky:
I'll contradict myself again
It's like I'm fighting with myself.
I'm afraid that I won't meet you
And I'm afraid to meet you.
Your outstretched hand
I'm afraid to hold it in my palms,
I'm afraid, in pain,
And letting go too quickly.
And again I'm from distant wanderings
You are the only one I strive for,
I'm afraid of your sad eyes,
But I’m also afraid of funny eyes.
I'm afraid you don't see everything in me,
I'm afraid that you can see without difficulty,
I'm afraid you'll get married soon,
I'm afraid you'll never get out.
What events await me?
I don’t presume to foresee this.
And I'm afraid to forget about you,
And I'm afraid to remember you.
There are different types of repetitions:
a) simple repetition of words or phrases:
Father, father, stop threatening
Don't scold your Tamara. (M. Lermontov)
B) anaphora, simploca, epiphora, rediff, parallelism, assonance, alliteration (you have already met them),
C) leitmotif - repetition of particularly important plot elements,
D) refrain - repetition of a sentence, phrase or stanza-verse in songs.
“The Green Noise is coming and going, / The Green Noise, the spring noise!” - this refrain sounds in every stanza of N. Nekrasov’s poem “Green Noise”.
D) pleonasm - excessive repetition of homogeneous words and homogeneous phrases (dreamed about in a dream, ran at a run, snub nose...):
E) tautology - repetition of words with identical meaning, extreme degree of pleonasm:
The shadow frowned darker... (F. Tyutchev)
Repetition can become an element of a ring composition, when a poem begins and ends with the same words, as, for example, in “Star of the Fields” by N. Rubtsov.
RHETORICAL FIGURES
RHETORICAL APPEALS, as in the poems of Svetlana Petrovskaya:
Wind, are you my friend or enemy?
You and I have been together for a long time!
Evenings, raising the black flag,
The wind drinks sunset wine.
You're lucky with wings
And mine are like the rustle of pages...
Wind, why do you spite me?
Throwing joyful birds skyward?
In the first stanza there is another figure - RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION.
Another example of exclamations: look how unusually - polynomially - V. Brusov expresses his expression:
I can't reach it! I can't reach it! I'm tired! tired! tired!
The dryness of the steppes is more hospitable than the ledges of these rocks!
There are stones everywhere, just stones! moss and bare pine!
Chest of granite, be soft to me! sing me a song, silence!
A RHETORICAL QUESTION does not require an answer at all, it only has an emotional meaning, filled with feelings and edges, as in the poem by Veronica Tushnova:
Do you know,
what is grief,
when a tight noose
on your throat?
In poetry, it is not necessary to fully reveal your thoughts and feelings. Reticence, understatement is also a special stylistic figure.
This is a DEFAULT, whose main goal is to enable the listener or reader to think out (or invent) their own version of what is happening. In writing, silence is usually indicated by an ellipsis, in oral pronunciation - by a long pause.
A striking example of silence, awakening deep thoughts and strong feelings, is in the poem by I. Bunin:
In the forest, in the mountain, a spring is alive and clear,
An old cabbage roll above the spring
With a blackened popular print icon,
And in the spring there is birch bark.
I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slavish poverty.
But this cross, but this white ladle...
Humble, dear features!
What reconciles the poet with the “slave poverty” of Rus'? What do the cross and the ladle, carefully left at the spring, tell his heart? Think about this too, dear readers.
The default is ELLIPSIS (ELLIPS) - omission of the implied word. Unlike the default, the missing word in the ellipsis is easily restored in the given context. At the same time, the entire intonation of the line becomes more energetic and elastic. Most often, a verb is skipped, giving the text dynamism.
In speech, an ellipsis is a short pause; in writing, it is a dash (or without it). Examples:
To the horses, brother, and your foot in the stirrup,
Saber out - and cut! Here
God gives us a different feast. (D. Davydov)
In literary studies you will come across terms such as ASINDETON (non-union) and POLYSYNDETO (multi-union). The first technique enhances the dynamics, as in A. Pushkin’s description of the Battle of Poltava:
Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts.
Drumming, clicks, grinding...
The second slows down speech, but at the same time emphasizes the unity of what is being enumerated:
Oh, summer is red! I would love you
If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies. (A. Pushkin)
CHIASM (from the Greek “chiasmos” - cruciform) is a stylistic figure, a rearrangement of words against the background of parallel construction of sentences: in the first half of the chiasmus, the words are arranged in one sequence, and in the second - in the reverse order. The first two lines in A. Blok’s poem are constructed according to the principle of chiasmus:
I'm waiting for a cold day
I'm waiting for the gray twilight.
The heart froze, ringing:
You said: "I'll come..."
The inversion of the major and minor terms makes the second line a mirror image of the first. And it is unusually beautiful and expressive.
Antithesis(see tropes) is a syntactic figure if parts of a sentence are opposed, and not individual words (antonyms) (No Parisian clothes - a harsh sweater and a long gray skirt tied with a wide belt(about M. Tsvetaeva)).
Anaphora– repetition of identical words or consonances at the beginning of a poetic line or prose phrase, for example: I look for the future with fear, // I look for the past with longing(M. Yu. Lermontov).
Asyndeton- intentional omission coordinating conjunctions to give the phrase more dynamics. For example: Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, shacks, men, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies flash past; fashion stores, balconies, lions on the gates...(A.S. Pushkin).
Introductory words and phrases- a word, combination of words or sentences not related to other words; can express the writer’s feelings (joy, regret, surprise, etc.) in connection with the message: fortunately, joyfully, unfortunately, horror and etc.; also express the speaker’s assessment of the degree of reality of what is being communicated (confidence, assumption, possibility, uncertainty, etc.): of course, undoubtedly, it seems, it goes without saying, certainly, it would seem and etc.; indicate the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation and the source of what is being communicated: therefore, in particular, for example, in addition, therefore, firstly and etc.; in my opinion..., in my opinion..., they say, I remember, they say and etc.; represent an appeal to the interlocutor or reader in order to attract his attention to what is being communicated, to instill a certain attitude towards the facts presented: see, understand, imagine, please, suppose, suppose and etc.; show the degree of normality of what is being said (it happens, it happens, as usual etc.), express the expressiveness of the statement (in fairness, in conscience, it’s funny to say etc.) For example: “Watch your comrades during a debate, discussion, polemic - you will, of course, be convinced that they behave differently”(L. Pavlova).
Question and answer move (hypophora)- this is a segment of monologue speech that unites a rhetorical question(or a series of questions) and the answer to them; question of thought. The question-answer move consists in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. This technique involves the recipient in the dialogue and makes him a participant in the search for truth. How is it used? effective remedy in hidden controversy. Example: Tens of thousands of soldiers disappeared without a trace, not a shred of flesh remained from them, they were truly missing. It is impossible to bury them! And what? Not to consider a single war in history over? Isn’t it easier to assume: you didn’t understand what Suvorov said!
Gradation- a turn of poetic speech consisting of a deliberate grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence in a sequential order of increasing or decreasing semantic or emotional significance; a means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development (from small to large - direct gradation - or from large to small - reverse gradation.), to convey the growing intensity of feelings, experiences. For example: “Oh, wow, what a shame!.. It’s impossible to describe: velvet! silver! fire!"(N.V. Gogol); I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend(A. Blok). Gradation can become a compositional technique for constructing the entire text (for example, in the fairy tales “Terem-Teremok”, “Kolobok”, “About the Grandfather and the Turnip”).
Inversion- violation of the sequence of speech, the generally accepted order of words, rearrangement of parts of the phrase; gives the phrase a new expressive shade, a special solemnity to the sound and meaning of the sentence: A sick spirit is healed by chants(E. Baratynsky).
Multi-Union- deliberate repetition of identical conjunctions. For example: And the heart beats in ecstasy, And for him, Divinity and inspiration have risen again, And life, and tears, and love(A.S. Pushkin).
Parallelism- comparison of natural phenomena and human life. For example: “The graves are overgrown with grass; the pain is overgrown with long ago”(M. Sholokhov).
Parcellation- stylistic device of using incomplete sentences (sentences in which one or more members are missing forest bird has already flown away. The swamp moved behind her.); breaking a whole sentence into separate parts (Maybe our hero became a millionaire. Or an artist. Or just a cheerful beggar) enhances their semantic weight and gives speech a special emotionality.
Subtext- unspoken directly in the text, but as if arising from individual remarks, comments, details, etc., the author’s attitude to the material being presented. IN scientific style or in business papers, subtext would be a flaw that interferes with the perception of the objective content of the text, but in a work of art or journalism it is an integral part.
A rhetorical question- a question addressed to the reader that does not require an answer; used to attract and enhance reader attention; enhances the emotionality of the statement. They perform the same role appeals, exclamations. For example: “Why don’t people fly? I say, why don’t people fly like birds?”(A. N. Ostrovsky “Thunderstorm”); “What lofty prose this is! And they will quote it so many times!”(I. Andronikov). Rhetorical appeal differs from ordinary address in that it names the inanimate object being addressed: Greetings, desert corner,… (A.S. Pushkin).
Syntactic constructions of conversational style - designs used primarily in colloquial speech, which is characterized by the use of simple and incomplete sentences. The structures of colloquial speech are compressed, succinct, and laconic. Violation of style attracts the reader's attention. Short, abrupt sentences and the omission of individual words add dynamism, ease, and looseness to speech, creating the effect of “impromptu”, unpreparedness, and a feeling of direct communication and dialogue. The use of interrogative sentences characteristic of oral speech, enlivens, facilitates the reader’s perception of the material, and serves to polemically sharpen the proposed problems. For example: “Corporationization is the transfer of the workshop into the ownership of the team. Reaction? No! The workshop was essentially owned by the workers anyway. Another option. Privatization in one hand. The main question is which ones? To shadow structures or to one of the employees?”
Syntactic parallelism- homogeneous syntactic construction of sentences. For example: "Your mind is deep, that the sea// Your spirit is high, that the mountains.“The stars are shining in the blue sky, The waves are splashing in the blue sea, A cloud is moving across the sky, A barrel is floating on the sea” ( A.S. Pushkin); The diamond is polished by the diamond, // The line is dictated by the line(S. Podelkov).
Default- a figure of speech in which the statement is deliberately not completed so that the reader himself can fill in the missing words, and can also be a means of expressing a special emotional state. An ellipsis is often a sign of silence. For example: Now he will get to you... Oh, if only it weren’t for these relatives!..
Ellipse- a speech construction in which a word or several words are missing, easily restored either by context, or according to a specific situation, or thanks to the communicative experience of the speakers. Helps enhance the emotional richness of the statement, giving it laconicism. For example: “It’s true, a peasant [walks], two women [follow] him...”(A.S. Pushkin).
Epiphora- stylistic figure of repetition; repetition at the end of a segment of speech of the same word (lexical epiphora), word form (grammatical epiphora) or synonymous word (semantic epiphora) Example: “Scallops, all scallops: a cape made of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes made of scallops, scallops below, scallops everywhere.”(N.V. Gogol).
1.3 MORPHEMICS. WORD FORMATION (task B1 Unified State Exam test)
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics in which the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms are studied. Morpheme- This minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).
Word formation- a section of linguistics in which the formal semantic derivative of words in a language, means and methods of word formation are studied.
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1. Syntactic means of speech ingenuity (figures of speech)
Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any linguistic means that give imagery and expressiveness to speech. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic.
Semantic figures speeches - are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.
These include:
· comparison- a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison. Example: The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Below him is a stream of lighter azure (M. Yu. Lermontov);
· ascending gradation- a figure of speech consisting of two or more units placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I really ask you, I beg you;
· descending gradation - a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of increase. Example: A lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even the mouse (M. Twain);
· zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first was wearing a coat, the second was going to university, the third was in a bad mood;
· pun- a figure representing a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word, or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect. Example: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P. A. Vyazemsky);
· antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is parallelism of constructions. Example: It's easy to make friends, hard to separate; The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
· oxymoron- a figure of speech consisting of attributing to a concept a sign that is incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry up slowly.
Syntactic figures speeches - are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. IN syntactic figures In speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, figures of subtraction and figures of addition are distinguished.
TO figures decrease relate:
· ellipsis- a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness and dynamism: The foxes decided to bake a rabbit, and the rabbit from the oven - jumped onto the stove, then onto the bench and into the window from the bench (I .A. Kozlovsky);
· aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: He will return and then...;
· prosyopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement. For example, using a patronymic instead of a given name and patronymic;
· rest in peace- a combination of two sentences characteristic of colloquial speech into one statement containing a common member: There is a man sitting there waiting for you.
TO figures additions relate:
· repeat- a figure consisting of the repetition of a word or sentence with the purpose of emphasizing, strengthening a thought;
· anadiplosis(pickup) - a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, big as a sip, - a sip of water during the summer heat (V.A. Rozhdestvensky);
· prolepsa- simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it. Example: Coffee, it's hot.
Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, a figure of speech such as inversion is distinguished. Inversion - this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; Your fences have a cast iron pattern (A.S. Pushkin).
Expanding the function of a syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question.
Rhetorical question - the sentence is interrogative in structure, but narrative in purpose of the statement. A rhetorical question is a rhetorical figure that represents a question for which there is no answer. Essentially, a rhetorical question is a question to which an answer is not required or expected due to its extreme obviousness. In any case, an interrogative statement implies a very definite, well-known answer, so a rhetorical question is, in fact, a statement expressed in interrogative form. For example, asking a question "How many more We we will tolerate this injustice?" does not expect an answer, but wants to emphasize that "We we tolerate injustice, and too much for a long time" and seems to hint that "It's time already stop her tolerate And undertake something By this about".
A rhetorical question is used to enhance the expressiveness (emphasis, emphasis) of a particular phrase. A characteristic feature of these phrases is convention, that is, the use of the grammatical form and intonation of the question in cases that, in essence, do not require it. A rhetorical question, as well as a rhetorical exclamation and rhetorical appeal, are peculiar turns of speech that enhance its expressiveness - the so-called. figures. Distinctive feature These phrases are their convention, that is, the use of interrogative, exclamatory, etc. intonation in cases that essentially do not require it, due to which the phrase in which these phrases are used acquires a particularly emphasized connotation, enhancing its expressiveness. Thus, a rhetorical question is, in essence, a statement expressed only in interrogative form, due to which the answer to such a question is already known in advance. Example: Can I see beauty in the new shine of a faded dream? Can I again clothe the nakedness with the cover of a familiar life? - V.A. Zhukovsky.
Obviously, the meaning of these phrases is to assert the impossibility of returning “dreams of faded beauty,” etc.; the question is a conditional rhetorical turn. But thanks to the form of the question, the author’s attitude towards the phenomenon in question becomes much more expressive and emotionally charged.
2. Russian accent. Variants of word stress and word forms
Stress norms -- one of the most important problems of the Russian language. They are numerous and not easy to digest. The stress is learned along with the word: you need to remember it, translate it into a speech skill. Often, incorrect stress is remembered easier and faster, which is later very difficult to eliminate. This is the task of a literate person -- master the norms of stress and apply them correctly in practice. Russian stress is distinguished by the presence of a greater number of pronunciation options than stress in other languages (for example, in French the stress always falls on the last syllable). Difficulties in mastering Russian accent are associated with two of its features: diversity and mobility.
Diversity -- this is the ability of stress to fall on any syllable of a Russian word: on the first -- iconography, on the second -- experiment, on the third -- we put the blinds on the fourth -- apartments. In many languages of the world, stress is attached to a specific syllable. Mobility -- this property of stress moving from one syllable to another when changing (declension or conjugation) of the same word: waters -- womdu, hohum -- you're dumb. Most words in the Russian language (about 96%) have movable stress. Variability and mobility, historical variability of pronunciation norms lead to the appearance of accent variants for one word. Sometimes one of the options is considered by dictionaries as corresponding to the norm, and the other -- as wrong. Compare: polomzhil, magamzin -- wrong; I guess it's a store -- Right. Sometimes the options are given in dictionaries as equal: imsparkly and sparkling. Due to such difficulties in studying stress in the Russian language, accent variants appear for words. There are several main reasons for the appearance of accent options. Law of analogy. IN in this case a large group of words with a certain type of stress influences a smaller one, similar in structure. In the word thinking, the stress moved from the root to the suffix -eni- by analogy with the words beating, driving, etc. In words such as ironing, pickling, crushing, strengthening, providing, concentrating, intending, the stress falls on the root vowel, and not suffixal. This must be remembered! False analogy. The words gas pipeline, garbage chute are pronounced incorrectly by false analogy with the word wire with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable: gas pipeline, garbage chute. This is incorrect, since in these compound words the stress falls on the last syllable (in the second part of the word).
Tendency to grammaticalize stress -- development of the ability of stress to distinguish the forms of words. For example, with the help of stress, they differentiate between the forms of the indicative and imperative moods: pristrimnite, prinumdite, prigumbite and pristrinimte, compulsory, sip. Mixing stress patterns. More often this reason operates in borrowed words, but can also appear in Russian ones. Usually difficulties arise with words borrowed from Greek or Latin. They are often similar, but the emphasis is placed differently.
The effect of the tendency towards rhythmic balance. This tendency appears only in four- and five-syllable words. If the interstress interval (the distance between stress in neighboring words) turns out to be greater than the critical interval (the critical interval is equal to four unstressed syllables in a row), then the stress moves to the previous syllable.
Professional pronunciation: imskra (for electricians), compams (for sailors), boyomvy (for sellers), prikums, amlkogol, syringes (for doctors), etc.
Trends in the development of stress. In two- and three-syllable masculine nouns there is a tendency to shift the stress from the last syllable to the previous one (regressive stress). For some nouns this process has ended. Once upon a time they pronounced: tokamr, konkumrs, nasmomrk, ghost, despot, symbol, air, pearl, epigram with the emphasis on the last syllable. In other words, the process of stress transition continues to this day and is manifested in the presence of variants.
A large group of words in the Russian language has several accentological variants. Only some of these options in the literary language are equivalent (Tvoromg and tvomrog, barzham and bamrzha, camphoram and camphora, combiner and combiner, shchepomt and shchempot).
Typically, the options differ in their scope of use:
· So, one of the options in a literary language can be the main one (cf.: crazy, democrat, engaged), another - additional, acceptable, but less desirable. (cf.: unrestrained, girlish, busy).
· Other options may be non-literary (colloquial, dialect).
For example, in a literary language the pronunciation is unacceptable (!): hesitated, document, magamzin, kilometer, kvamrtal, amlkogol, momolodezh. These are colloquial accentological options. Literary pronunciation options: occupied, document, magazimn, kilometer, quart, alcohol, youth.
· If there is difficulty, the stress in words and forms of words can be checked using explanatory, spelling and special, spelling dictionaries.
3. Norms of conversational speech
language speech semantic word
Speech culture develops skills in selecting and using linguistic means in the process verbal communication, helps to form a conscious attitude towards their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks.
To be modern also means in the field of oral speech to proceed from the norms accepted at the present time, and those who seek to influence others with their speech cannot afford non-normative elements. Knowledge of the norm - required condition competent and expressive speech, free and interesting communication.
“To fully communicate,” writes A.A. Leontyev, - a person must have a whole range of skills. He must quickly and correctly navigate the conditions of communication; be able to correctly plan your speech, correctly select the content of the act of communication, find adequate means to convey this content, and be able to provide feedback. If any of the links in the act of communication is disrupted, then it will not be effective.”
Serious work on yourself and your speech begins only when you clearly understand why you need it. Linguists, studying oral speech, have concluded that it is structurally different from written language. They are fundamentally similar, otherwise it would be impossible to retell what was read and write down what was said. If in written speech there is one channel of information, then in oral speech there are two: a) information that is contained in spoken words and b) information that is received in addition to words, which accompanies speech to one degree or another, connected with words.
Spoken speech, due to its two-channel nature, is distinguished by great heuristic and creative possibilities. Writer and philosopher M.M. Prishvin repeatedly addressed this thesis: “To the last extreme we must be careful of using philosophical concepts and stick to the language of whispering about everything with a close friend, always understanding that with this language we can say more than what philosophers have tried to say for a thousand years and did not say.” .
Conversational speech functions in the sphere of everyday, everyday communication. This speech is realized in the form of a relaxed, unprepared monologue or dialogic speech on everyday topics, as well as in the form of private, informal correspondence. Ease of communication is understood as the absence of an attitude towards a message that is of an official nature, an informal relationship between speakers and the absence of facts that violate the informality of communication, for example, strangers. Spoken speech only functions in the private sphere of communication, and in the sphere of mass communication it is unacceptable. Conversational speech can touch upon not only everyday topics: for example, a conversation with a family in an informal relationship, about art, science, sports, conversations in public institutions. However, for example, conversational speech is not prepared, and the topic of conversation is related to professional activity speakers, so it uses scientific vocabulary. The form of implementation is predominantly oral.
The colloquial and everyday style is contrasted with book styles, since they function in certain areas of social activity. However, colloquial speech includes not only specific linguistic means, but also neutral ones, which are the basis literary language. Within a literary language, colloquial speech is contrasted with codified language as a whole.
But the codified literary language and colloquial speech represent two subsystems within the literary language. The main features of the conversational style are the already mentioned relaxed and informal nature of communication, as well as the emotionally expressive coloring of speech. Therefore, the entire wealth of intonation, facial expressions, and gestures is often used. One of the most important features is the reliance on the extra-linguistic situation, that is, the immediate environment of speech in which communication takes place.
Conversational speech has its own lexical and grammatical features. A characteristic feature of this speech is its lexical diversity. Here you can find the most diverse thematic and stylistic groups of vocabulary: general book vocabulary, terms, foreign borrowings, some facts of vernacular, jargon. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic diversity of colloquial speech, which is not limited to everyday topics, everyday remarks, and secondly, by the implementation of colloquial speech in two tones - serious and humorous, and in the latter case it is possible to use a variety of elements. Syntactic structures also have their own characteristics. Constructions with particles and interjections are typical for colloquial speech. The word order in this speech is different from that used in writing. Here the main information is concentrated at the beginning of the statement. And in order to draw attention to the main thing, they use intonation emphasis.
Clericalisms penetrate into colloquial speech and we can note absurd combinations of stylistically incompatible words: What issue are you crying about?; If I have a wife, I won’t wash the dishes! Another distinctive feature The colloquial speech of our time has become saturated with diminutive forms, without stylistic motivation: Hello! Have you prepared the materials?; Give me a certificate; Half a kilo of sausages, etc. In such cases, we are not talking about the size of objects, no particularly tender attitude towards them is expressed, in other words, the evaluative value of expressively colored words is lost. The use of such forms is due either to a complex idea of “polite style” or to the degraded position of the applicant, who is afraid of being refused. For writers, diminutive forms of evaluative words become a source of ironic coloring of speech: Well, how good we are all! How beautiful and pleasant! And that one who pushed the old lady aside with his elbow and got on the bus instead! And there’s the one who’s been sweeping the alley with a broom for three days now. There is a high degree of usage in colloquial speech of reduced words, which in this case lose their connotation of disdain and rudeness: My grandmother is good; The girl walking with him was beautiful.
The largest stylistic layer of phraseology is colloquial phraseology, which is used in oral communication: a week without a year, a black sheep, carelessly. Conversational phraseological units are figurative, which gives them special expression and liveliness. Colloquial phraseology in general, close to colloquial, is distinguished by a great reduction: straighten your brains, scratch your tongue; The crudely colloquial phraseology sounds even sharper: the law is not written for fools; no skin, no face. It includes swear combinations that represent a gross violation of the linguistic form. The use of phraseological units adds beauty and imagery to speech. This is appreciated by journalists who willingly address in feuilletons and essays: The director is an atheist to the core - he does not believe in either the brownie or the devil. Humorists and satirists especially like to use phraseological units.
4. Functions of punctuation marks in text
Punctuation marks serve to separate sentences from each other in the text, to separate and highlight semantic segments in a sentence. They are divided into three groups: separative (in the text), dividing and emphasizing (in the sentence).
Separating signs punctuation
These include a period, a question mark, Exclamation point, ellipsis. They are used:
· to separate each word of a sentence from the next one in the text;
· to design a separate sentence as complete.
The choice of one of the four separating marks is determined by the meaning and intonation of the sentence.
Signs punctuation V end offers
Rules: At the end of narrative and incentive sentences, a period is put if they do not additionally express emotions (feelings). At the end of interrogative sentences there is a question mark. An exclamation mark is placed at the end of any sentence based on the purpose of the statement if they additionally express a feeling. An ellipsis is placed at the end of a sentence if the writer takes a long pause.
Separating signs punctuation
These include: comma, semicolon, dash, colon. Separating punctuation marks are used in a simple sentence to indicate boundaries between homogeneous members (commas and semicolons), in a complex sentence - to separate simple sentences, included in its composition. The choice of dividing punctuation marks is determined by morphological, syntactic, semantic and intonation conditions.
excretory signs punctuation
Distinctive punctuation marks serve to indicate the boundaries of semantic segments that complicate a simple sentence (addresses, introductory words, phrases, sentences, isolated secondary members), as well as direct speech.
Distinctive punctuation marks are: comma (two commas); dash (two dashes); Exclamation point; double brackets; colon and dash used together; double quotes. The choice of punctuation marks is determined by syntactic, semantic and intonation conditions.
5. Correct speech: grammatical norms
Right speeches - this is compliance with the language norms of the modern Russian literary language. From the point of view of the norm, speakers and writers evaluate speech as correct (norm) or incorrect (error). The norms in the modern Russian literary language are phonetic, lexical-phraseological, word-formative, morphological, syntactic, stylistic.
Phonetic norms - these are the norms for pronunciating the sounds of the modern Russian literary language, placing stress in words and maintaining correct intonation.
Lexical and phraseological norms - these are the norms for the use of words and phraseological units in their inherent lexical meaning and the norms for combining words and phraseological units with other words in a sentence.
Morphological norms - these are the norms of inflection when declension of nominal parts of speech, pronouns and participles and when conjugating verbs. With non-normative inflection, morphological errors occur. For example, “no time”, “more beautiful”, “lie down”, etc.
Norms of inflection are studied in morphology. They are described in the reference book “Difficulties of word usage and variants of norms of the Russian literary language”, ed. K. S. Gorbachevich. D., 1973.
Syntactic norms - these are the norms for constructing syntactic structures - phrases and sentences. When phrases and sentences are constructed in a non-normative manner, syntactic errors occur. For example, “approaching the city, a business conversation began between them.”
The rules for constructing phrases and sentences are studied in syntax.
Stylistic norms - this is the ability to use the inherent linguistic means in a particular functional style. Stylistic norms are studied in stylistics. Failure to possess the ability to use linguistic means in accordance with the requirements of the style leads to stylistic errors. For example, “Declare gratitude to the conductor”; “Pretty little rivers flow through the Russian plain.”
Grammar norms - these are the rules for using forms different parts speech, as well as the rules for constructing sentences. Compliance with pronunciation standards has important for the quality of our speech. Grammatical norms include morphological norms and syntactic norms.
Morphological norms - rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech. A Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expression grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.
Syntactic norms - these are the norms for the correct construction of phrases and sentences. Compliance with syntactic norms is the most important condition for correct speech.
Syntactic norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, correlating parts of a sentence with each other using grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms leads to syntax errors different types. For example, there is a violation of syntactic norms in the following sentences: While reading a book, the question arises about the future of the country. The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles. Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
6. Proverbs and sayings and features of their use in speech
Proverb is a short, rhythmically organized, figurative saying that is stable in speech.
A proverb is the property of an entire people or a significant part of it and contains a general judgment or instruction for some occasion in life.
A proverb is the most curious genre of folklore, studied by many scientists, but in many ways remaining incomprehensible and mysterious. A proverb is a folk saying that expresses not the opinion of individual people, but the people's assessment, the people's mind. It reflects the spiritual image of the people, aspirations and ideals, judgments about various aspects of life. Everything that is not accepted by the majority of people, their thoughts and feelings, does not take root and is eliminated. A proverb lives in speech, only in it does a capacious proverb acquire its specific meaning.
Created over the centuries, passing from generation to generation, proverbs and sayings supported the way of life of the people and strengthened the spiritual and moral image of the people. These are like the commandments of the people, regulating the life of every common person. This is an expression of thoughts that people have come to through centuries of experience. A proverb is always instructive, but not always edifying. However, each has a conclusion that is useful to take into account.
Proverb is a widespread figurative expression that aptly defines any life phenomenon. Unlike proverbs, sayings are devoid of a direct generalized instructive meaning and are limited to figurative, often allegorical expression: it’s easy to hit the bullshit - all these are typical sayings, devoid of the character of a complete judgment. But the saying, even more than the proverb, conveys emotionally expressive assessment of various life phenomena. A proverb exists in speech in order to express precisely and, above all, the feelings of the speaker. Thus, the proverb condemns work that is done roughly, as necessary, somehow: “Pull it down with a sack, then we’ll sort it out.”
Proverbs should be distinguished from sayings. The main feature of the proverb is its completeness and didactic content. The proverb is distinguished by the incompleteness of the conclusion and the lack of an instructive character. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish a proverb from a saying or to draw a clear line between these genres. A saying borders on a proverb, and if one word is added to it or the order of words is changed, the saying becomes a proverb. In oral speech, sayings often become proverbs, and proverbs often become sayings. For example, the proverb “It’s easy to rake in heat with someone else’s hands” is often used as a saying “It’s easy to rake in heat with someone else’s hands,” that is, a figurative image of a lover of someone else’s labor.
Sayings, due to their peculiarity of figurative expressions, more often than proverbs, come closer to linguistic phenomena. Sayings have more national, national significance and meaning than proverbs. Sayings often have all the properties linguistic phenomena. This is the expression to put a pig in, that is, to cause trouble for someone. The origin of this saying is associated with the military system of the ancient Slavs. The squad became a “wedge”, like a boar’s head, or a “pig,” as Russian chronicles called this system. Over time, the meaning attached to this expression in ancient times was lost.
The people expressed the difference between them in the proverb: a saying is a flower, and a proverb is a berry,” indicating that a saying is something unfinished, with a hint of judgment.
Not every saying became a proverb, but only one that was consistent with the lifestyle and thoughts of many people - such a saying could exist for millennia, moving from century to century. Behind each proverb is the authority of the generations that created them. Therefore, proverbs do not argue, do not prove - they simply affirm or deny something in the confidence that everything they say is the solid truth. Listen to how definitely and categorically they sound: “What you sow is what you reap,” “The sound of a tambourine is just around the corner, but they will come to us like a basket,” “They don’t go to someone else’s monastery with their own rules.”
The people who created the proverbs did not know how to read and write, and the common people had no other way to store their life experience and their observations. If we take folk proverbs in their entirety, we will see that they reflect the mentality of the people in all its diversity and contradictions; moreover, they are an important part of the people’s traits, way of life, and their moral standards. The proverb calls for following its wisdom, they even say: “As the proverb says, so act.” The proverb instills confidence in people that the experience of the people does not miss anything and does not forget anything. The proverb is perhaps the first brilliant manifestation of the creativity of the people.
Forced baptism into the Christian faith marked a milestone in the popular consciousness and gave rise to the proverb “Cross Dobrynya with a sword, Putyata with fire.” Proverbs that appeared after the baptism of Rus' began to combine ancient pagan ideas with a new faith - pagan gods and Christian saints came together: “Egory and Vlas - to all the wealth of the eyes.” In mockery of the old religious practices, which were distinguished by extreme diversity in different localities, converts to the new faith composed the proverb “Churches are not barns, the images in them are all one.”
For centuries, proverbs have lived among the people, reflecting the dependence of the peasant on secular and spiritual feudal lords: on princes and monasteries. No less clearly expressed in proverbs is the direct connection of peasant labor with nature and dependence on its whims, the strength of the established patriarchal structure in the family, in the “world” (community).
In the era of established feudal relations, the peasantry became serfs. Many proverbs about serfdom appeared. The peasants, realizing their lack of rights, said: “The worldly neck is thick” (it can bear a lot).
The invasion of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors sharpened the feeling of connection with the native land. Numerous patriotic proverbs of the Russian people go back to the times of fierce battles ancient Rus' for independence: “From your native land - die, but don’t leave.”
The growth of cities and the development of trade had a strong influence on the countryside: “And the goods from the land grow dear.” The entry into the path of commodity-money relations, the transformation of peasants into commodity producers, is reflected in thousands of proverbs, insightfully revealing the ruthless laws of the market: “Money is not a god, but it is half a god.” “Everything obeys money.”
The proverbs reflected not only the “big” world of the most important public relations, but also the “small” world - private life, the relationships of people to each other in the family, in home life. Whether a peasant or city dweller was marrying his son, marrying off his daughter, punishing a thief, lamenting about the health of loved ones, reflecting on the transience of life - there were proverbs for all occasions.
Many successful expressions from works of fiction become proverbs and sayings. “Happy people don’t watch the clock”, “How can you help but please your loved one”, “Silent people are blissful in the world”, “You can’t get well from such praise”, “In more numbers, at a cheaper price” - these are a few sayings from the comedy by A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, existing in the language as proverbs. Love for all ages; We all look at Napoleons; Whatever passes will be nice; And happiness was so possible - all these lines from the works of A. S. Pushkin can often be heard in oral speech. The man exclaiming: “There is still gunpowder in the flasks!” - may sometimes not know that these are words from a story by N.V. Gogol "Taras Bulba".
I.A. Krylov, who based his work on living colloquial and often introduced folk proverbs and sayings into his fables, he himself created many proverbial expressions: “And Vaska listens and eats”; "And nothing has changed"; “But I didn’t even notice the elephant”; "A helpful fool more dangerous than the enemy"; “The cuckoo praises the rooster because he praises the cuckoo”; “Why count godmothers, isn’t it better to turn on yourself, godmother?”
Bibliography
1. http://feb-web.ru/feb/litenc/encyclop/le9/le9-7032.htm.
2. Mikhailova E., Golovanova D. Russian language and culture of speech, 2009.
3. Oral speech culture. Intonation, pausing, tempo, rhythm: textbook. pos-e/ G.N. Ivanova - Ulyanova. .M.: FLINTA: Science. 1998
4. Kazartseva O.M. Culture of speech communication: Theory and practice of teaching: textbook. pos-e. 2nd ed. M.: Flinta: Science. 1999
5. Rhetoric. Reader for practical work. Muranov A.A. M.: Ross. teacher Agency, 1997
6. Russian language and speech culture: Textbook/ed. prof. IN AND. Maksimova. M.: Gardariki, 2002.
7. L.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova, E.Yu. Kashaeva. Russian language and speech culture: Textbook. manual for universities. Posts N/A. From "PHOENIX" 2001
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