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The origin of world trade took place in ancient times, and already at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, it reaches a significant scale and takes the form of stable international commodity-money relations. The reason was the creation in a number of industrialized countries, such as England, Holland and others, of large-scale machine production, which was expected in large-scale and regular imports of raw materials from the economically less developed countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The industrialized countries, in turn, exported manufactured goods to them, mostly for consumer purposes.

In the 20th century world trade experienced several crises. The first crisis was caused by the First World War 1914-1918. Its consequence was a long and deep disruption of world trade, which lasted until the end of the Second World War, which shook the entire structure of international economic relations to its foundations. The post-war period for world trade was also quite difficult, as it faced new difficulties associated with the collapse of the colonial system. But, in spite of everything, all these crises were successfully overcome.

In general, international trade of the post-war period was characterized by a noticeable acceleration in the pace of development, which reached the highest level in the entire previous history of human society. Most importantly, the growth rate of world trade has outpaced that of world GDP.

Since the second half of the 20th century, world trading activity has been developing at a rapid pace. In the period 1950-1994. the growth of world trade turnover accelerated 14 times. According to Western experts, the period between 1950 and 1970 can be called the "golden age" in the development of international trade due to the fact that the average annual growth rate of world exports reached in the 50s. 6%, in the 60s. - 8.2. In the period from 1970 to 1991, the physical volume of world exports (that is, calculated at constant prices) increased 2.5 times, the average annual growth rate was 9.0%, in 1991-1995. this indicator was equal to 6.2%.

The result is an increase in the volume of world trade. So in 1965 it amounted to 172.0 billion, in 1970 - 193.4 billion, in 1975 - 816.5 billion dollars, in 1980 - 1.9 trillion, in 1990 - 3 .3 trillion and in 1995 - over 5 trillion dollars.

During this period, an annual growth of 7% in world exports was achieved, which already in the 70s decreased to 5%, decreasing even more in the 80s. At the end of the 80s, world exports showed a noticeable rise (up to 8.5% in 1988). The decline of the early 1990s was followed by high and steady growth. Many factors contributed to this growth, some of which are:

1) International division of labor and internationalization of production;

2) the Scientific and Technical Revolution (STR), which served as an impetus for the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy and accelerated the reconstruction of old ones;

3) The emergence and vigorous activity of transnational corporations in the world market;

4) Regulation, i.e. liberalization of international trade through the activities of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);

5) Liberalization of international trade, due to the abolition of quantitative import restrictions by most countries and a significant reduction in customs duties - the formation of free economic zones;

6) Development of trade and economic integration processes through the elimination of regional barriers, the formation of free trade zones and common markets;

7) the acquisition of political independence of the former colonial countries and the selection among them of "new industrial countries" with an economy model oriented to the external market.

The second half of the 20th century is characterized by the manifestation of the uneven dynamics of foreign trade, which in turn affected the ratio among countries in the world market. The leading position of the United States was shaken, and that made it possible for German exports to approach the American, and in some years even surpass it. However, Germany was not the only country with noticeable growth rates, and many countries were on a par. Western Europe. In the 1980s, Japan made a noticeable breakthrough in the field of international trade, which allowed it to become a leader in terms of competitiveness factors at the end of this decade. In the same period, the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - also joined it. But by the mid-1990s, the United States was once again taking a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. Close behind are Singapore, Hong Kong, as well as Japan, which previously held first place for six years.

So far, developing countries have been assigned only the role of suppliers of raw materials, food and relatively simple products finished products to the world market. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags significantly behind the overall growth rate of world trade, this is due to the fact that substitutes for raw materials are being developed, their use is more economical and processing is deepening. Industrialized countries have almost completely occupied the market of high technology products. But, despite this, some developing countries, primarily the "newly industrialized countries", managed to achieve significant changes in the restructuring of their exports: increasing the share of industrial products, finished products, including machinery and equipment. Thus, the share of industrial exports of developing countries in the total world volume in the early 90s was 16.3%.

Until the end of the 19th century. in fact, everywhere the majority of the population were peasants, who produced food and other necessities, mostly for own consumption. What they could not produce themselves was bought from nearby towns in exchange for handicrafts and minor agricultural surpluses. Long distance travel related trading activities were rare, since almost all products were produced in limited quantities, and the transport of goods was fraught with dangers and big expenses and took a lot of time. Where international trade did exist, it was usually monopolized by state-licensed private entities like the British East India Company. It was profitable to export only expensive and light goods abroad: gems, noble metals, spices, some types of fabrics (especially woolen and silk), furs and wine. Grain was exported abroad rarely and in very small quantities. For several centuries, international trade was carried out to a greater extent along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas and along the Asian caravan routes leading to these seas. the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Florence, the German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, the trading cities of Flanders (now Belgium) and the port cities of the Hanseatic League on the southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic Sea were the main centers of international exchange of goods. British technological innovations of the 17th and 18th centuries contributed to the growth of labor productivity in agriculture and industry. New equipment and machinery made it possible for larger enterprises to appear, focused on the production of cheap fabrics, and then steel smelting. These first steps towards mass production contributed to a sharp increase in the volume of goods transported from country to country and were accompanied by improvements in means of transport and communications. England was soon followed by other Western European countries such as France and Belgium. Despite the significant progress that had been made in the previous century, by the beginning of the 19th century. the volume of international trade in goods and services could not exceed 3% of the value of world output. Gradually, however, the Industrial Revolution spread to Germany, the United States, and (somewhat later) Japan. In the second half of the 19th century one by one, new industries began to appear: the electrical and chemical industries, mechanical engineering, and in the near future, the products of these industries accounted for a significant share of world trade. On boats and railways large consignments of cargo were transported over long distances; The telegraph greatly simplified the dissemination of information throughout the world. All these innovations led to a significant increase in the volume of foreign trade, and by 1913 about one-third of all products produced in the world were exported outside national borders. Industrialization increased the demand for raw materials, first for cotton and timber, and then for metals and fuels. Own production in developed countries was not enough to cover all needs, so about half of the required raw materials were mined in the colonial territories. Enclaves emerged in many colonies with much closer ties to foreign consumers than to the society in which they existed. Despite the great importance of primary products in international commodity exchange in the 19th century, Europe occupied a central place in world trade. Before the outbreak of World War I, trade between non-European countries accounted for less than 25% of total world trade, and trade between European countries was approx. 40%. Trade between European countries and the rest of the world accounted for 35%. Great Britain was a great trading power, although its share gradually decreased due to the rapid economic development continental Western Europe, North America and Japan.

The basis of free trade, which consists in the elimination of restrictions on the movement of goods and services from country to country, was laid by the economists of the classical school. Great Britain, beginning in the 18th century, gradually abandoned protectionism, leaving only tariffs on imported wheat. In 1846, the country generally abandoned protectionism in relation to agriculture. Other trade liberalization measures taken by Britain and other countries made the period from 1850 to 1880 an era of minimal trade barriers. In the late 1870s, marked by a prolonged economic crisis, Europe moved away from the principles of free trade. international trade world deficit

In the early 20th century, the movement towards protectionism continued. But despite this, in 1914, when the First World War broke out, protectionism achieved little success. International trade has so far been governed by the gold standard, which means that national currencies had a fixed value in gold. In this regard, all countries participating in international trade sought to ensure the competitiveness of their goods by reducing production costs.

The First World War undermined the gold standard, and in the 1920s it was replaced by the gold exchange standard, the essence of which was to conduct international settlements in British pounds sterling and American dollars. This system, however, allowed the US, UK and their debtors to maintain deficit balances of payments for a long time. The collapse of this system led to the Great Depression of the 1930s. The reaction of many states to the depression was to increase control over foreign trade. One by one, they formally left the gold standard, abolished fixed exchange rates, and, by introducing tariffs and quotas, sought to increase the competitiveness of goods, which protected national production from foreign competition. This kind of goal could only be achieved at the expense of other countries - pursuing a policy of "ruining one's neighbor." Due to the fact that many countries pursued this policy, international trade experienced stagnation and decline. The volume of industrial production in most countries was declining, industrial demand for primary products was declining, which undermined international trade. The policy of national self-sufficiency was taken to the extreme in the USSR, in Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, who aspired to national economic independence.

International trade was significantly undermined in the 30s of the 20th century, the situation became even more complicated during the Second World War. All this led to the fact that the absolute volume of trade in the 1940s did not exceed the level of 1913. This state of affairs forced the Allies to start developing plans to improve the system of world trade, without waiting for the end of the war. It was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which was supposed to ensure the stability of currencies. The next issue was trade liberalization. And already in the second half of the 1940s, with the assistance of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), it was possible to achieve normalization and a certain unification of trade policy in most non-socialist countries of the world. Efforts to freer trade in the agricultural trade did not bring significant results, as the main supplier of agricultural products at that time, the United States, put significant pressure on other countries to reduce tariffs. But despite this, the volume of international trade after the war began to gradually increase. So in the period from 1953 to 1960 it increased by an average of 7% per year, and in 1960-1974 - by almost 8% per year. But most importantly, the growth of international trade was faster than the increase in world industrial and agricultural output. Thanks to this, a trend has developed towards a higher specialization of countries in the production of various goods and services. Despite post-war growth in the rate of world trade, the difference in inflation rates between countries led to trade imbalances over the next 10 years. Governments resorted to currency speculation from time to time to eliminate the trade deficit, which ultimately led to a crisis. To withdraw from it in 1995, GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which assumed responsibility for continuing liberalization in the areas of telecommunications, banking, insurance, tourism and shipping.

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Structure and stages of formation of international trade

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of the foreign trade of all countries of the world. It arose in the process of the birth of the world market in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of modern times.

At the earliest stages of human history, entire peoples could directly come into contact with each other. Such contacts arose during migrations, mass exoduses from natural disasters, during the forceful division of territories, exchanges.

The inhabitants of the first state in the world (Egypt) 5 thousand years ago traded with neighboring tribes, buying wood, metals, livestock from them in exchange for handicraft and agricultural products. They also organized expeditions for economic development new lands. At the same time, the tribes living on the territory of Russia exchanged goods with neighboring tribes. Traders in services began to join the international trade in goods. Phoenician and Greek merchants not only traded goods throughout the Mediterranean, but also provided services for the transport of goods and foreign passengers. The region of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, together with the adjacent countries of Western Asia, became the region of the world where the core of the world economy was born in ancient times. Gradually, other economic regions of the world joined it - first South Asia, then Southeast and East Asia, Russia, America, Australia and Oceania, and areas of Tropical Africa. Thus, international trade also existed in antiquity, but the world market, covering the trade of a significant part of the countries, and then all the countries of the world, arises only in the process of developing commodity-money irrigation. A great contribution to the development of world trade in goods and services was made by the active spread of market relations, the great geographical discoveries of the 15th - 17th centuries, the emergence in the 19th century of the machine industry and modern means of transport and communication. The expeditions of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Yermak pushed the limits of the world market many times over, adding new regions to it. Economic ties with these regions were strengthened after the start of mass factory production of finished products in the 19th century. first in Western Europe, and then in North America, Russia and Japan. These were simple and cheap consumer goods. Steamboats, railways, telegraph contributed to their sale. As a result, by the end of the XIX century. a global market for goods and services. Russia acted on it primarily as an exporter of grain and other agricultural products, as well as timber to Western Europe, a supplier of finished products to Asian countries. Imported Western European finished goods, materials and semi-finished products.

At the same time, the movement of factors of production (capital, work force, entrepreneurial ability, technology). streams economic resources went in one direction - from the most developed countries to the least developed. British, French, Belgian, Dutch and German capital was a prominent element in the accumulation of capital in America and Russia, emigrants from Europe mastered the expanses of North America, South Africa, Australia. Then the process of moving economic resources became more complex: capital, entrepreneurial abilities and technology became not only import, but also export moderately developed countries, and underdeveloped countries also actively participated in the export of labor. As a result, the international movement of factors of production becomes mutual.

After the world economy took shape at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, it has undergone significant changes:

1st period - from the beginning of the First World War to the beginning of the 50s. 20th century It is characterized by the curtailment of world economic ties (wars, revolutions, the crisis of the 30s) in combination with their partial restoration in the 20s. and after World War II.

2nd period - 50-70s. The emergence of integration groups (EU, CMEA), the process of transnationalization is underway, the active transfer of technologies, entrepreneurial abilities and capital, the world loan capital market has recovered. The socialist and developing states began to lay claim to a special role in the world economy.

3rd period - 80-90s. Developed countries are moving into an era of post-industrialization, many developing countries are overcoming the economic backlog (China and NIS), former socialist countries are moving to a market economy.

4th period - the beginning of the XXI century. Development of integration processes, globalization.

The fastest growth in world trade was in post-war period. This was facilitated by:

1) factors affecting the general state of the world economy (scientific and technological revolution, the development of state regulation of the economy, the increased power of industrial corporations, the competition of two socio-economic systems);

2) the processes of international specialization and cooperation, caused by the objective need for the development of productive forces;

3) the growth of transnational corporations (TNCs, by developing specialization and cooperation between their enterprises, contribute to the growth of international trade);

4) liberalization of foreign trade policy, transition to a more open economy;

5) integration (the abolition of trade restrictions between countries belonging to integration groups contributed to the growth of their mutual trade);

6) gaining political independence former colonies, which led to the growth of their trade to obtain from industrialized countries the machinery and equipment necessary for industrialization.

In terms of growth rates, international trade is significantly ahead of the growth in production of countries participating in world trade relations. A feature of modern trade is that it is increasingly acquiring the character of intra-company trade, when trade relations are carried out between various divisions of one global corporation.

The structure of world trade turnover shows the ratio in its total volume of certain parts, depending on the chosen feature.

The overall structure reflects the ratio of exports and imports as a percentage or in shares. In physical volume, this ratio is equal to 1, and in total, the share of imports is always greater than the share of exports. This is due to the fact that exports are valued at FOB (Free on board) prices, according to which the seller pays only for the delivery of goods to the port and its loading on board the ship; imports are valued at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight, i.e., they include the cost of goods, the cost of freight, insurance costs and other port fees).

The commodity structure of world trade shows the share of a particular group of goods in its total volume. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the MT a product is considered as a product that satisfies some social need, to which two main market forces are directed - supply and demand, and one of them necessarily acts from abroad.

Goods produced in national economies participate in MT in different ways. Some of them don't participate at all. Therefore, all goods are divided into tradable and non-tradable.

Tradable goods are freely movable between countries, non-tradable ones, for one reason or another (uncompetitive, strategically important for the country, etc.) do not move between countries. When talking about the commodity structure of world trade, we are talking only about tradable goods.

In the most general proportion in world trade, trade in goods and services is singled out. Currently, the ratio between them is 4:1.

In world practice, various classification systems for goods and services are used. For example, in trade in goods, the Standard International Trade Classification (UN) is used - SITC, in which 3118 main commodity items are combined into 1033 subgroups (of which 2805 items are included in 720 subgroups), which are aggregated into 261 groups, 67 departments and 10 sections. Most countries use the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (including the Russian Federation since 1991).

When characterizing the commodity structure of world trade, there are most often two large groups goods: raw materials and finished products, the ratio between which (in percent) was 20: 77 (3% others). By individual groups countries, it varies from 15:82 (for developed countries with market economies) (3% others) to 45:55 (for developing countries). For individual countries (foreign trade turnover), the range of variations is even wider. This ratio may change depending on changes in the prices of raw materials, especially energy.

For a more detailed description of the commodity structure, a diversified approach can be used (within the framework of the SMTC or within other frameworks in accordance with the objectives of the analysis).

To characterize world exports importance has a calculation of the share of engineering products in its total volume. Comparing it with a similar indicator of the country allows us to calculate the index of industrialization of its exports (I), which can be in the range from 0 to 1. The closer it is to 1, the more the trends in the development of the country's economy coincide with the trends in the development of the world economy.

The geographical (spatial) structure of world trade is characterized by its distribution along the lines of commodity flows - the totality of goods (in physical terms) moving between countries.

Distinguish between commodity flows between countries with developed market economies (SRRE). They are commonly referred to as "West - West" or "North - North". They account for about 60% of world trade; between SRRE and RS, which stand for "West-South" or "North-South", they account for over 30% of world trade; between RS - "South - South" - about 10%.

In the spatial structure, one should also distinguish between regional, integration and intra-corporate turnover. These are parts of world trade, reflecting its concentration within one region (for example, the South- East Asia), one integration group (for example, the EU) or one corporation (for example, any TNC). Each of them is characterized by its general, commodity and geographical structure and reflects the trends and degree of internationalization and globalization of the world economy.

Economics of the G8 countries. G8 countries: their role and importance in the global economy.

The Group of Eight (English Group of Eight, G8), or the Big Eight is an international club that unites the governments of Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Canada, Russia, the USA, France and Japan. The unofficial forum of the leaders of these countries (with the participation of the European Commission), within the framework of which the approaches to pressing international problems are coordinated, is also called.

The G8 is not an international organization, it is not based on an international treaty, it does not have a charter and a secretariat. G8 decisions are not binding. As a rule, we are talking about fixing the intention of the parties to adhere to an agreed line or about recommendations to other participants in international life to apply certain approaches in resolving certain issues.

Since the G8 does not have a charter, it is therefore impossible to officially accept the status of a member of this institution. Since 1996, after the meeting of the club in Moscow, Russia began to take an increasingly active part in the work of the club. According to an unspoken rule, the G8 summits are held annually in turn in each of the member countries. In Russia, the summit was held in 2006 in St. Petersburg (the meeting of the club, which took place in Moscow in 1996, was not recognized as a summit).

The term "Big Eight" is a logical continuation of the term "Big Seven", which arose in Russian journalism from an erroneous decoding English abbreviation G7 as "Great Seven" ("Big Seven"), although in fact it stands for "Group of Seven" ("Group of Seven"). For the first time, the use of the term "Big Seven" was recorded in the article "The Baltic States cost Gorbachev $ 16 billion", the Kommersant newspaper of January 21, 1991.

G6 arose at a meeting of the heads of state and government of France, the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Japan in the Rambouillet Palace on November 15-17, 1975 (since the early 70s, such meetings have been held at the level of finance ministers). In 1976, the "six" turned into the "seven", taking Canada into its membership, and during 1991-2002 it was gradually (according to the "7 + 1" scheme) transformed into the "eight" with the participation of Russia.

The idea of ​​holding meetings of leaders of the most industrialized countries of the world arose in the early 70s in connection with the economic crisis and the aggravation of relations between the United States, Western Europe and Japan on economic and financial issues.

At the first meeting (November 15-17, 1975), at the initiative of the then President of France, Valerie Giscard d "Estaing, the heads of state and government of six countries gathered: the USA, Japan, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy. The meeting adopted a Joint Declaration on Economic Problems , which calls for the non-use of aggression in the trade area and the rejection of the establishment of new discriminatory barriers.

Subsequent meetings are held annually. G8: Russia, USA, UK, France, Germany, Japan, Italy, Canada.

GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) 2010

This indicator measures the gross domestic product (GDP) or the value of all goods produced and services rendered in a country in a given year.

According to 2010 data, among the countries of the Sick Eight, the United States of America is the leader in terms of gross domestic product (14.624184 trillion dollars).

	GDP (trillion $)	Place in the world by GDP	GDP growth (%)
Great Britain
Germany

The USA is the largest economy in the world. Its structure is distinctly post-industrial. Most of the US GDP is created in the service industries, which primarily include education, healthcare, science, finance, trade, various professional and personal services, transportation and communications, service public institutions. The share of material production (agriculture, forestry and fishing industry, mining and manufacturing industry, construction), thus, remains 20.6% of GDP. About 0.9% of GDP is created in agriculture, and industry provides less than 20% of GDP.

Among the developed countries of the world, the United States has practically no competitors in terms of its industrial development. General pattern ongoing sectoral shifts is a noticeable decrease in the economy of the share of primary industries and agriculture. Among the branches of the material sphere, industry remains the most important, it still provides high level technical development of other spheres of the economy. It is in it that today, first of all, the latest achievements of scientific and technological revolution are accumulated. The United States has one of the most highly efficient farms in the world. A distinctive feature of their economy is the focus on scientific and technological progress and advanced technology. It is a leader in the implementation of the results of scientific and technological revolution in production, in the export of licenses for its discoveries, inventions and latest developments. All this often leads to the dependence of other countries on the United States in the field of science and technology.

At the same time, GDP growth is relatively low and amounts to 2.8% in 2010 (3rd place among the G8 countries)

	Population (people)		Unemployment (%)
Great Britain
Germany

Of the G8 countries, the US also has the largest population (31102800 people.) The economically active population is 154.5 million (including the unemployed; February 2010) and the unemployment rate - 9.6% (2010) - the highest among the G8 countries (France is in second place - 9.5%, Italy is in third - 8.4%.). The minimum unemployment rate is fixed in Japan - 5.2%. This is due to the peculiarities of the national labor market, the main features are lifetime employment in large corporations, as well as wages depending on the length of service.

On June 1, 1999, the Japanese government released the "Emergency Employment Policy." Created under this program, the Human Resources Redistribution Fund allocates cash grants to companies for one year for salary supplements for all newly hired workers - regardless of where they previously worked and their age.

Despite the fact that Japan ranks only 61st in the world in terms of territory (area - 377,944 km²), it is the only one of the G8 countries to have negative inflation (-0.9% per year) and one of the highest production growth rates among the G8 countries. - 7.5% (it is second only to Russia, where this figure is 8.3%)

	Inflation growth (%)	Industry Growth Rate (%)	GDP growth (%)
Great Britain
Germany

Uniqueness geographical location largely determined the historical isolation of Japan and the peculiar island mentality of its inhabitants. Mineral reserves are extremely scarce. Only limestone, sulfur and coal. Agricultural land is more than modest - 13% of all land is suitable for cultivation. As for the resources of the world's oceans, Japan's position is much more favorable here - the country is one of the world's largest producers of fish and seafood.

Japan is deservedly considered a recognized world leader in the production of civil applied technologies. Of particular note is the development of technologies that improve the environmental situation.

Among the branches of the sphere of non-material production, the development of trade, financial and banking services should be especially noted. At present, the process of softization of the economy is in full swing, i.e., the increasing role of intangible resources: information, communications, and tourism. Of great importance are business services related to the maintenance of production: consulting, engineering, marketing.

The country has a highly qualified, well-prepared for practical work, able-bodied labor force. For the whole country, a long (above the norm) working day and a fairly significant share of additional activities at one's workplace (exchange of experience, quality circles, etc.) have become the norm. Virtually no strike movement.

Japan's GDP is 127,960,000 trillion. dollars is the 2nd place among the G8 countries and the 4th place in the world.

According to the results of the first quarter of 2010, in terms of GDP growth (3.8%) and industrial production growth (8.3%), Russia came out on top among the G8 countries. Unfortunately, the inflation rate in Russia is also the highest - 6.7%, which is more than 2 times higher than in the other seven countries (for comparison, the UK - 3.3%, Germany - 1%, Italy - 1.4 %)

	GDP (trillion $)	GDP per capita ($)	Export (trillion $)
Great Britain
Germany

trade money international

In terms of exports of goods, Germany stands out sharply - 1.3370 trillion dollars (and this is about half of the country's GDP).

Exported products are known all over the world under the trademark Made in Germany. Germany does not have large reserves of any minerals. A rare exception to this rule, which applies to the entire Central European region, is coal, both black and brown. Therefore, its economy is concentrated mainly on the industrial production and service sectors.

Large areas of the country are used for agriculture. Despite this, only 2-3% of the population is employed in agriculture. total number working population. About 50% of the territory is used, animal husbandry (cattle and pig breeding), grain crops (rye, oats).

Although Germany is known as the “beer country”, since 2001 its inhabitants have been buying more wine than beer. In 2005, according to the German Wine Institute, the volume of wine consumed in absolute terms amounted to about 16 million hectoliters, and in the structure of consumed wines, the main part (about 40%) is occupied by drinks produced in Germany itself, about 13% is occupied by wines from France, a few less - the wines of Spain.

The automotive industry is one of the most important industries in Germany. Every seventh employee works here, his share in exports is 40%. Thanks to the five companies WVolkswagen, Audi, BMW, Porsche and Opel, Germany, along with the USA and Japan, is one of the world's largest car manufacturers. About 6 million cars roll off the assembly line here every year; another 4.8 million cars of German brands are produced abroad. Consumers especially appreciate technical innovations in German cars.

Germany's main export partners: France (9.7%), USA (8.6%), United Kingdom (7.3%), Italy (6.7%), Netherlands (6.2%), Belgium (5 .5%), Austria (5.5%), Spain (4.7%)

The minimum volume of exports from eight countries in Russia is 0.3767 trillion. dollars, as well as GDP per capita - $ 15,900. (This is 3 times less than the leader - the United States ($47,400) and 2 times less than the average level for the G8).

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The evolution of the world economy and the main theories of international trade. The essence of international trade in goods as the dominant sphere of the national economy of many states. The structure of exports and imports of the Russian Federation, the main problems of Russia in this area.

abstract, added 01/31/2012


Theories of international trade. Profit from foreign trade, income distribution. Tariff and non-tariff methods of regulation of world trade. Integration and internationalization of the world economy. Labor force migration. Balance of payments and exchange rate.

course of lectures, added 05/24/2010


Theories of international trade: classical, comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin, Leontief's paradox. Types of international trade policy. Analysis of international trade of developed countries and countries with economies in transition. Rising influence of Asian countries.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE. HISTORY
traditional societies. Until the end of the 19th century. in fact, everywhere the majority of the population were peasants who produced food, as well as made tools and many basic necessities. What they could not produce themselves was bought from nearby cities in exchange for surplus agricultural products (usually small) and some handicrafts. Long-distance trade trips were very rare, since almost all products were produced in small quantities, and the transport of goods was fraught with danger and cost and took a long time. Where international trade existed, it was usually monopolized by state-licensed private organizations like the British East India Company. It made sense to export abroad only goods that were of high value with low weight: precious stones, precious metals, spices, certain types of fabrics (especially woolen and silk), furs and wine. Grain was also sometimes exported abroad, but in small quantities. For centuries, international trade was carried on mainly along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas and along the Asian caravan routes leading to these seas. The main centers of international exchange of goods were the Italian cities of Venice, Genoa and Florence, the German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, the trading cities of Flanders (now Belgium) and the port cities of the Hanseatic League on the southern and eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. However, in life ordinary people trade did not play a prominent role, and the discovery of America and circumnavigation of Africa and South America little has changed in it. Nevertheless, the result of the courage and skill shown by the sailors was the shift of European sea trade routes towards the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
Industrial Revolution. British technological innovations of the 17th and 18th centuries paved the way for increased labor productivity, first in agriculture and then in industry. New machines and equipment made possible the emergence of larger enterprises for the production of cheap fabrics, and later for steelmaking. These first steps towards mass production led to a sharp increase in the volume of goods transported from country to country and were accompanied by improvements in the means of transport and communication. France and Belgium soon followed the British pattern of industrial development. Despite the significant progress made in the previous century, by the beginning of the 19th century. the volume of international trade in goods and services did not exceed 3% of the value of world output. Gradually, however, the Industrial Revolution spread to Germany, the United States, and (somewhat later) Japan. In the second half of the 19th century new branches of production appeared: mechanical engineering, electrical and chemical industries. Soon, the products of these industries accounted for a significant share of world trade. Large consignments of cargo were transported over long distances by railroads and steamships; The telegraph greatly simplified the dissemination of information throughout the world. As a result of all these changes, the volume of foreign trade increased so much that by 1913 about one-third of all products produced in the world were exported beyond national borders. Industrialization spurred demand for raw materials, first for cotton and timber, and then for metals and fuels. About half of the raw materials were mined or produced in European countries; a significant part came from plantations, mines and other enterprises specially created in the colonies to supply Europe with the necessary goods. In many colonies, enclaves emerged that had much closer ties to foreign consumers than to the society in which they existed. Despite the great importance of primary products in international commodity exchange in the 19th century, Europe occupied a central place in world trade. Before the start of the First World War, trade between non-European countries accounted for less than 25% of the total volume of world trade, trade between European countries - approx. 40%, and for trade between European countries and the rest of the world - 35%. Great Britain remained the main trading country in the world, but its share gradually decreased due to the rapid economic development of continental Western Europe, North America and Japan.
The era of free trade. The basis of free trade - the elimination of restrictions on the movement of goods and services from country to country - was laid by classical economists (mainly British). Great Britain since the 18th century. gradually, step by step, she abandoned protectionism, and by the early 1840s, only tariffs on imported wheat remained in force in the main. In 1846 the country, in principle, also abandoned protectionism in relation to agriculture. Contrary to expectations, wheat prices were in no hurry to fall, since none of the countries in the world could export large quantities of it to the UK. Be that as it may, the 1850s and 1860s were a period of economic prosperity, and - rightly or wrongly - this prosperity was directly associated with free trade. Other trade liberalization measures taken by Britain and other countries made the period from 1850 to 1880 an era of minimal trade barriers. By 1870, however, as a result of the development of ocean transportation, British agriculture faced serious competition. In the late 1870s, after a long economic crisis, Europe (especially Great Britain) began to move away from the principles of free trade. At the same time, the surge of nationalism, which gave rise to political instability, forced the states to seek increased revenues to the treasury to pay for armaments. In addition, nationalism has caused countries such as the United States and Germany to fear that their industrial development will run into great difficulties if it is not possible to limit competition from Great Britain, the leader in industrial production. Under these conditions, the idea of ​​protecting young industries has grown in popularity.
20th century. At the beginning of the century, the movement towards protectionism continued. Nevertheless, in 1914, when the First World War broke out, protectionism achieved relatively little success, although the world economy was no longer as free from control over trade as 50 years ago. International trade, however, was still governed by the gold standard, under which national currencies had a fixed value in gold and disparities in payments between countries were settled by the transfer of gold in the corresponding amount. No country could maintain the competitiveness of its goods on the world market by devaluing the national currency; moreover, it was impossible to maintain a deficit in the balance of payments for an indefinitely long time. Therefore, all countries participating in international trade sought to ensure the competitiveness of their goods by reducing production costs.
Depression. During the First World War, the gold standard was undermined and replaced in the 1920s by the gold exchange standard, according to which all international payments were made in British pounds sterling and US dollars. This system, however, allowed the US, Great Britain and those countries that managed to get loans from them to maintain deficit balances of payments for a long time. Eventually this system collapsed, and its collapse was one of the causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s. Many states responded to the depression by tightening control over foreign trade. One by one, they officially left the gold standard, abolished fixed exchange rates, and by devaluing national currencies and introducing tariffs and quotas, they tried to increase the competitiveness of goods by devaluing their currencies and imposing tariffs and quotas. This simultaneously protected national production from foreign competition. Such a goal could only be achieved at the expense of other countries - by pursuing a policy of "ruining one's neighbor." Since many countries could and did play this game, the result was international disunity and world trade stagnated and even declined. The volume of industrial production in most countries was declining, and as a result, industrial demand for primary products was declining, which undermined international trade. The policy of national self-sufficiency was taken to the extreme in the USSR, in Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, which strove for autarky, i.e. national economic independence. Foreign trade in the USSR was in the hands of the state and was centrally planned. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany developed similar programs of autarky, but in these countries state control was less comprehensive and restrictions on foreign trade were less severe.
post-war years. The disruption of international trade in the 1930s, exacerbated by the effects of World War II, was so significant that the absolute volume of trade in the 1940s did not exceed the level of 1913. Concerned negative consequences such a stagnation, the Allies, even before the end of hostilities, began to develop plans to improve the world trading system. It was decided to create the International Monetary Fund (IMF), which was supposed to guard the stability of currencies. Implementation of plans directly related to trade liberalization did not proceed so smoothly. However, in the second half of the 1940s, with the help of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), it was possible to achieve normalization and a certain unification of the trade policy of almost all non-socialist countries of the world. The GATT negotiations were carried out in the hope of removing as many trade barriers as possible - primarily quotas and subsidies - by including a most favored nation clause in the agreement, guaranteeing that any concession and concession in trade between countries automatically extends to all parties to the agreement. Under the auspices of the GATT, a number of multilateral trade negotiations took place: several negotiating cycles in the 1950s, in 1961 the Dillon Round, in the 1960s the Kennedy Round, in the late 1970s the Tokyo Round, and in the late 1980s and early 1990s -x - Uruguay round. At the conclusion of the Kennedy Round, the industrialized countries' tariff on manufactured goods was reduced by an average of 10%. The Uruguay Round was tasked with achieving further reductions in customs tariffs worldwide, by an average of 40%, as well as cutting trade subsidies and other non-tariff barriers. Relatively less successful have been attempts to freer trade in the zone's agricultural products. temperate climate. The main supplier of such products, the United States, put strong pressure on other countries to reduce tariffs, but most countries expressed their determination to protect the interests of farmers. For example, Great Britain during the Second World War faced enormous difficulties in supplying the population with imported food, so its government decided to stimulate the growth of national food production. British farmers were given subsidies that allowed the British population to buy products at world market prices, and farmers to receive a normal income. British farmers have been, and still are, very efficient, and they make up a small percentage of the country's population. On the contrary, the farmers of some continental European countries, especially France, really needed protection due to their large numbers and low productivity. The French understood that in the end they would have to modernize agriculture, but due to social and political reasons did not seek drastic changes and decided to protect national producers with protectionist measures. When France and other countries of Western Europe formed the association that later became the European Union, they created a common agricultural policy with complex system managed prices and border fees. Over time, such a policy began to cause criticism, giving rise to overproduction and the accumulation of "mountains of butter" and "lakes of wine." Some, however, argue that high levels of agricultural production serve as insurance in an unpredictable world where food shortages are regularly in danger. Despite the resurgence of agrarian protectionism in Britain and other European countries, the volume of international trade began to increase after the war. In the period from 1953 to 1960, it increased by an average of 7% per year, and in 1960-1974 - by almost 8% per year. In addition, the growth of international trade was faster than the increase in world industrial and agricultural output. Thus, there was a trend towards a higher specialization of different countries in the production of various goods and services, although the share of cross-border products in global output by the end of the 1970s did not reach the level of 1913, i.e. approximately 33%.
1970s. Despite the revival of trade immediately after the end of World War II, the difference in inflation rates between countries during the 1950s and 1960s led to trade imbalances from time to time. The UK and especially the US could neither control the rise in prices nor adapt to it by adjusting exchange rates. When exchange rates finally “floated” in the 1970s—floating in speculative foreign exchange markets in line with inflation and other economic indicators—unions demanded higher wages to compensate for rising prices for imported goods (particularly oil). As a result, measures to reduce imports by raising foreign exchange rates were often not effective enough, and governments had to resort from time to time to managed, or "dirty", floating, in which a flexible exchange rate was accompanied by large-scale borrowing to eliminate the trade deficit. In the end, the crisis, which manifested itself in a decline in production and an increase in unemployment along with unceasing inflation, led in 1975 (for the first time since 1945) to a drop in the volume of international trade by 4%. However, in 1976 it rose again - by 11% compared with 1975, and the value of total exports reached about 1 trillion. Doll.
1980-1990s. The Uruguay Round of GATT began in the 1980s and discussed agricultural subsidies as well as restrictions on trade in services. However, only by 1993, after eight years of negotiations, the participants in the round reached an agreement on the adoption of a new large-scale program for the development of free trade. On January 1, 1995, GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which is responsible for practical implementation decisions taken during the Uruguay Round, as well as for continued liberalization in the areas of telecommunications, banking services, insurance, tourism and shipping. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) entered into force between Canada, the United States and Mexico. Intending within 15 years to eliminate all tariffs and other trade barriers in the region, the states parties to the agreement consider NAFTA as an intermediate step towards creating a free trade area covering the entire Western Hemisphere. East Asian countries are also reporting intentions to form a similar trading bloc.
Development prospects. Despite the increasing integration of world markets, political, psychological and technical barriers to the movement of goods and services between countries still remain significant. The elimination of these barriers would lead to a very significant transformation of the world economy, as well as the national economies of all countries of the world. According to many economists, the first obvious signs of such a transformation appeared already in the 1970s. Most of the industrialized countries of the world began to realize that such new industrial powers as South Korea, Hong Kong and Brazil are quite capable of producing many types of industrial products (such as clothing, electronic equipment, ships and cars) at a lower cost than in developed countries. It is likely that in the future, the basic manufacturing industries of the developed countries of the world will experience great difficulties in competing with the products of new rivals. In order to maintain their current positions in world trade, industrialized countries will have to focus on manufacturing high technology or in the provision of services requiring extensive experience (for example, in financial management), and also (in the case of the United States) in manufacturing food products. Adapting to new trends will require huge and very painful changes. Without these changes, the countries that are now part of the industrialized group will lose their advantages in a future world where the ability to produce basic industrial products is likely to become much more commonplace than ever in the past.

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open society. 2000 .

Russia's place in international trade

thesis

1.1 The concept and stages of development of international trade

International trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In other words, international trade is the sphere of exchange of products of labor (goods and services) between sellers and buyers of different countries.

Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. International trade links national economies into a single system of the world market. The latter has fundamental differences from domestic national markets:

only competitive goods enter the world market;

world prices operate, which are based on international value (formed during the production of goods in average world socially normal conditions);

it is more prone to monopolization (the dominance of TNCs);

not economic, but political factors may have a decisive influence.

settlements are carried out in freely convertible currency and in international units of account.

Chronology of the stages of development of international trade

stage - initial (from the 18th to the first half of the 19th century)

second half of the 19th century until the outbreak of the First World War (1914)

the period between the two world wars (1914-1939)

post-war period (50-60s)

modern period (from the beginning of the 70s).

Each stage was characterized by certain sources of development, features that reflected the level of internationalization of production and the role of international trade in the development of national economies, priority methods of regulation.

The first stage is characterized by the influence of the industrial revolution, including in the development of transport and communications. In addition, such trends were observed in the processes as the predominance of the export of goods, the outpacing of the growth rate of world trade in comparison with the growth of industrial production, and the leadership of England. In regulation, preference was given to a policy of protectionism. At the same time, the policy of free trading began to emerge.

In the second stage, the driving sources of the external environment were the intensive use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in the production of goods, the development of transport routes and the quality characteristics of vehicles, the formation of monopoly production.

The export of capital began to predominate in trade processes, fast growth trade, changes in the balance of power in the world market by reducing the influence of France and England, the concentration of trade relations between the most developed countries. In regulation, there is a noticeable strengthening of trends associated with the transition from a defensive approach to advancing protectionism.

The third stage, the most dramatic because of the consequences of the First World War, expressed in crises (1920-1921, 1929-1933). Two global economic systems began to take shape. In the processes, there was a long and deep disruption of trade relations, sharp fluctuations in the volume of trade, the predominance of the raw material structure of exports and imports. The regulation was marked, on the one hand, by the strengthening of customs protectionism, on the other hand, by the collapse of the international monetary system and the formation of currency blocs.

The fourth stage, where we observed the collapse of the world colonial system, the formation of regional entities, the emergence of world international organizations, the strengthening of two world economic systems, became the key in the process of changing the commodity structure of exports. The increase in the growth rate of world trade, taking into account the weakening of the positions of developing countries, led to the strengthening of the positions of Japan, Germany, Canada and Italy, while reducing the share of the USA, Great Britain and France in world exports.

In regulation, there is a noticeable transition to a policy of liberalization of trade relations, the implementation of a set of customs and tariff measures under the auspices of the GATT.

At the present stage, the sources of the external environment include the strengthening of international competition, the strengthening of existing and the emergence of new integration entities, the collapse of the world socialist economic system. In the processes, there is a sharp increase in trade volumes, a change in the commodity structure of exports, the spread of stable and long-term relations, and the intensification of countertrade.

In regulation, the processes of transition from tariff to non-tariff regulation are also taking place, neo-protectionism is being cultivated as a tool for stimulating export production, and the creation of closed economic blocs is being completed.

At present, a number of indicators of the development of international trade have been developed to analyze the state of world trade.

These include:

Volumetric (absolute)

export (re-export);

import (reimport);

foreign trade turnover;

"general" trade;

"special" trade;

physical volume of foreign trade.

Resultant

balance: trade balance, balance of services, balance of current operations;

balance of payments index;

terms of trade index;

export concentration index;

country dependency ratio;

Structural

commodity structure (export, import);

regional structure (export, import);

export diversification index;

intensity

quotas (export, import, foreign trade);

volumes of export, import, foreign trade turnover per capita;

Efficiency

export effect;

export efficiency (company, product);

import effect;

import efficiency;

Speakers

Mappings

Foreign trade policy of the state: free trade and protectionism

International trade is a form of relationship between the commodity relations of various economies, occurring on the basis of the international division of labor ...

Foreign trade in the BRICS countries

The term "foreign trade" refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods. The term "import" comes from the Latin "importo"...

Foreign trade of Russia

International trade is the exchange of goods and services across national borders. This exchange is based on the principle of comparative advantage. This principle was first proposed by D. Ricardo...

European law

European law is a new phenomenon in the world. It arose and developed in the second half of the 20th century. literally before the eyes of people living today and therefore cannot compete not only with traditional branches of law, such ...

international trade

International trade in the world economy

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. Structural shifts...

International trade and modern methods of its implementation. Russia's place in international trade

International trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world. In other words...

World economy: current state, patterns and development trends

The first stage in the development of the international monetary system was the gold standard system, which was formed at the beginning of the 19th century. She had such essential elements like the functioning of gold in the role of world money ...

Structure and dynamics of world trade in goods

World (international) trade is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which is the totality of the foreign trade of all countries ...

Trends in the Development of Russia's Foreign Trade in the Period of Market Transformations

International trade is one of the main forms of economic relations between countries. Foreign trade is a consequence of the international division of labor...

Trends in the development of the world economy

Modern special (economic) literature does not contain a unified approach to the concept of "world economy". In some cases, the concept of the world economy is traced, in others - the world economy, in the third - the world economy ...

The theory of comparative endowment with factors of production in international trade

Trade is a traditional and ancient form of international economic relations. Having emerged many centuries ago, it still continues to maintain important positions in the overall complex of world economic relations...

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