With repeated and careful contemplation of all the now prosperous states, I can swear with an oath that they appear to be nothing more than a kind of conspiracy of the rich, fighting under the name and sign of the state for their personal benefits. They invent and invent all sorts of methods and tricks, firstly, in order to keep without fear of loss what they have acquired by various fraudulent tricks, and then in order to buy back for themselves the work and labor of all the poor at the cheapest possible price and exploit them, like pack cattle. Since the rich have decided on behalf of the state, which means also on behalf of the poor, to observe these tricks, they already become laws.
Thomas More
Foreword
These two works, "Utopia" by Thomas More and "City of the Sun" by Tommaso Campanella, ask for one book cover. Although Campanella's work was written almost a century after More's ("Utopia" was written in 1516, and "The City of the Sun" in the Italian version - in 1602, in the Latin - in 1614), but they both belong to the same cultural era - the Renaissance. The era permeated these works with a single spirit of humanism and sociality (see: Steckli A.E. "City of the Sun": utopia and science. M .: Nauka. 1978. S. 43–63).
It is especially important to emphasize the following point. The peculiarity of the Renaissance lies in the fact that it thinks of itself as a renaissance ancient culture First of all, philosophy. Speaking specifically about the authors of "Utopia" and "City of the Sun", they recognize themselves as the successors of the philosophical work of Plato (428 or 427-348 or 347 BC) - the work of creating a project of an ideal society and state. One cannot but agree that Campanella, who spoke later, is, despite the silence on this matter, depending on More, but for all that, he sees a perfect society differently than More (see: Panchenko D.V. Campanella and “ Utopia" by Thomas More // History of Socialist Teachings. Sat. Art. M .: Nauka. S. 241-251), However, what unites the images of the "best state" (Mohr's expression) in the works of More and Campanella is not just the dependence of the views of the second on the views of the first of them, but much more, namely that which overlaps the differences, makes them differences within the unity. We are talking about the unity that stems from the belonging of the images of the perfect state by More and Campanella to a common type with the ideal state, the image of which was presented by Plato in his dialogue treatise “The State”. This type of ideas about an ideal society and state, common to More and Campanella as the successors of Plato's work, is a communist utopia.
At the same time, T. Mor and T. Campanella, striving to be more consistent communists than Plato, spread the operation of the principle of public property, designed to replace private property, from the higher social strata, which Plato has rulers (philosophers) and guards (warriors) for the whole society. Thus, together with the universal implementation of the principle of social property in the "best state", they also presuppose the universal operation of the principle of social equality in it.
I must say that what unites "Utopia" and "City of the Sun" is that the significance of the ideas of each of these works is paid for high price: tragic fate their creators. T. More was executed for his loyalty to his convictions, which diverged from the interests of the royal power (More, being an authoritative politician dangerous for the king, did not abandon his opinion about the preference for maintaining Catholicism in England as opposed to accepting Anglicanism, since he associated with Catholicism the possibility of a more favorable for the country and the people of social policy). Campanella for preparing an uprising against Spanish rule in Calabria, with which he associated the prospect of not only national liberation, but also the establishment of a social order in the spirit of the "City of the Sun" system, spent almost thirty years in a row, and a total of about thirty-three years, spent in prison dungeons of the Spanish authorities, suffering from brutal torture and terrible conditions of imprisonment. At the same time as the Spaniards, Campanella was pursued papal inquisition, who regarded his work as heresy and sentenced him to life imprisonment. Only by a miracle, thanks to a coincidence, Campanella escaped execution and was released at the end of his life. In The City of the Sun, he speaks, referring to himself, of the Philosopher, who is able to prove the loyalty to his views, and therefore the loyalty of themselves, even by trial by torture. Solarians, that is, citizens of the City of the Sun, writes Campanella, “conclusively prove that a person is free, and they say that if within forty hours cruelest torture with which enemies tormented one philosopher revered by them, it was impossible to get from him during interrogation a single word of recognition of what was sought from him, because he decided to remain silent in his soul, then, consequently, the stars, which act from afar and gently, do not can force us to act against our decision” (Campanella T. City of the Sun. M.L.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. 1947. P. 114). However, in this respect too - in relation to a high measure of loyalty to the communist idea and conviction in its truth, Mor and Campanella inherited Plato, who also literally risked his life, trying to convince the tyrant Dionysius, and then Dionysius the Younger in the need to implement in Sicily the doctrine of an ideal state.
It is precisely the literary and philosophical tradition of the communist utopia that comes from Plato through More and Campanella, closer than any other kind of ideas about the perfect and desirable structure of society, leads to the project of the future society, philosophically and scientifically substantiated by K. Marx and F. Engels. Closer, because the Marxist project, like the projects of the named utopians, is also a communist project. In the form that the classics of Marxism gave to the communist project of the future society, it is no longer a utopia, not a “place that does not exist”, but a practically embodied and embodied, in spite of all obstacles, type of society.
Now, when, after the defeat of real socialism in the USSR and Eastern European countries, the process of the formation of the communist formation is undergoing a crisis, when new ways and updated forms of translating the communist ideal into reality are being groped for, interest in the utopias of Mora and Campanella will intensify, if until recently they hardly aroused If not exclusively of academic interest, were considered only as examples of the history of utopian thought, then now they will be of interest to many readers outside the academic sphere, as they stimulate attempts to find answers to topical questions about the future fate of real socialism / communism both in our country and in the world.
It seems that there is no impassable border between utopia and science. Truly significant works of utopian thought, which, of course, include "Utopia" by T. Mora and "City of the Sun" by T. Campanella, remain relevant in terms of significance for scientific social futurology. Especially at such a turning point in history as the current one, they are able to satisfy the interest of the general reader, and, at the same time, feed the scientific thought about the prospects. social development. Understanding the content of utopias, correlating them with current reality, gives impulses, on the one hand, to confirm the truth of certain provisions of the scientific and philosophical theory of the formation of a society of social justice, and, on the other hand, the truth of other provisions of the theory is called into question.
From this point of view, we would pay attention to the central idea of the communist utopias of More and Campanella - the idea of the need to replace private property with public property, as well as two more acute topics in modern reality: the fate of religion (more broadly - faith) and the topic of gender (social -sexual) relations in the future society.
At the beginning of my analysis, it seems to me appropriate to briefly characterize the personality of the author Utopias by Thomas More and his life, to describe in general terms the historical period of the beginning of the 16th century for a better understanding of the work.
Thomas More was born into a wealthy urban family in London in 1478 and received an excellent education. He acquired his primary education at the College of St. Anthony. Before entering Oxford University, More was in the house of the Bishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Morton, where he served as a page. The cardinal really liked the young man, for the first time he predicted a brilliant future for Thomas. In More, he studied with prominent lawyers - William Grotsin and Thomas Linacre. It was during these years that Mor enters the circle of humanists who oppose medieval scholastic theology and strive to put the study of man himself in the first place. However, Thomas's father did not share his interests and forced him to fully concentrate on the study of law. Thanks to this, after completing his studies, Mor quickly gained fame as an excellent and decent lawyer, defender of the offended and oppressed.
At 26, he was elected to parliament for the first time. But he did not get along with King Henry VII and withdrew from active political activity until the death of the king in 1509. During this period, More was appointed several times by the king under the patronage of English merchants to negotiate with merchants from the Continent to Flanders and Calais. It was during one such trip in 1516 that he began writing Utopia. After the successful completion of his missions, Pestilence draws the attention of the king. Henry VIII brings More closer to him, high appointments follow one after another. In 1521 - speaker of petitions addressed to the king, in 1523 - chairman of the House of Commons, in 1529 - Lord Chancellor. This was an unheard-of phenomenon at that time, since for the first time the second person in the state after the king was a person from a bourgeois, and not an aristocratic environment. Nevertheless, fame did not go to his head, and throughout his state activity he followed his principles, did not engage in "agreement", was practically independent of the king, which led to frequent conflicts.
Fatal for Mora was a clash with the king over religious politics, although they had previously clashed over budgetary policy. As you know, Mor was an opponent of the reformation, which began in 1517, and condemned Martin Luther. Henry VIII was also her opponent, but a few years later he quarreled with the Pope and decided to destroy the power of Rome in England, as he saw in this both political and financial advantages (freedom from the power of the pope, rich land holdings). But More did not support him in this and paid dearly for it.
In 1533, the king was proclaimed the head of the English church and all subjects had to take an oath to him in this. More refused to do so and ended up in the Tower. During the investigation, he boldly defended his position and behaved with the dignity inherent in his noble character. He was found guilty and executed in London on July 7, 1535. Thus ended his life this great man, the founder of the philosophy of socialism.
Now it's worth taking a look at political map Europe of that period. The end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century is a period of constant wars and changing coalitions. The continent is dominated by the Habsburgs, led by Emperor Charles V, France, the German principalities are fighting him, wars are blazing throughout Western Europe. The English king, based on the political situation, joins one or the other, spends the treasury on all the more expensive trips to continental Europe. The struggle is for every piece of land, castle, town. In such a situation, diplomatic representatives are very important, deftly able to conclude both alliances and truces. Thomas More is one such worthy husband. At the same time, any of the rulers defends exclusively his personal interests, benefits, and not at all the people's or state. Thomas More also feels this very subtly, which prompts him to write Utopia.
"Utopia" is a book illustrating the ideal model of the state and the structure of society, to which all people and states should strive. There is no doubt that in his book he relies on Plato's work "The State", which he has always been very fond of since his student days. But More uses the work of the ancient thinker only as the foundation of his book, adding to it all the realities of his time, especially those relating to the emerging industrial capitalism and its consequences.
The work is written in the form of a story about a journey to an unknown country. This was caused by the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries, it is no coincidence that the description is carried out on behalf of one of the companions of Amerigo Vespucci. For the first time, Europeans got acquainted with the customs, traditions and life of new, previously unfamiliar peoples, which prompted people to comprehend their own lives within the framework of their contemporary society. And More boldly expresses these thoughts, criticizing many vices and ulcers of that time. That is why he divides his work into two parts, in the first he describes the contemporary socio-political and economic situation in Europe, exposes all the problems and contradictions within and between peoples, and in the second part he draws an idealistic picture of the life of the fictional people of the New World.
This bright contrast is necessary in order to draw people's attention to the modern sores of society, make them aware of this and start changing something in order to at least fix, improve or eradicate something. After all, people always need a reference point to which they will strive. Such a structure of a philosophical work was first applied by More. He brilliantly coped with the task set before him, since his book had a tremendous effect on European thinking, the perception of reality. Now it is worth moving directly to the analysis of the work itself.
First book
The first book begins with a description of the historical panorama of the beginning of the 16th century. Thomas More arrived as an ambassador in Flanders to settle disputes between his king Henry VIII and his opponent, Emperor Charles V. In Antwerp, in the interval between negotiations, More, through his friend Peter Egidius, met a very interesting person, Raphael Hythlodeus, a Portuguese traveler.
It turns out that Raphael participated in three travels of Amerigo Vespucci, during which he saw and studied a lot in regard to everyday life and state structure local residents. He briefly describes what he saw. Conversing with him, More and his friend are surprised that, with such knowledge, the Portuguese has not yet become an adviser to some monarch to improve the latter's lands. For the Portuguese, the complete impossibility of this is obvious. Raphael enters into a dispute with his opponents in order to prove to them his uselessness for the thoughts of any sovereign in the field of foreign and domestic policy. More argues that the sovereign is the benefactor of the people, from whom all useful measures for the subjects should come. But the sovereigns, according to Gitloday, are more concerned about wars, the seizure of new lands and wealth, than the well-being of their own people. This is a completely objective statement, due to the fact that during that period the formation of absolutism begins, which reached its peak in subsequent centuries.
The interest of the sovereign was above all, the opinion prevailed that the monarch knew better, what was more useful to the people and the country. In addition, favoritism, flattery, denunciation dominate in any court. An intelligent person with his own opinion and certain principles cannot hold out for so long, and the sovereign will not tolerate being often disagreed with. To make the reasoning closer to reality, the interlocutors directly turn to England and its internal device. Hythloday cites a conversation with Cardinal Morton of Canterbury as an example. And this is what our traveler came to.
The question touched upon the poor, beggars and thieves, the reasons for their mass distribution in England. How does Raphael feel about this? Such phenomena are caused by the unfair distribution of duties and incomes in the state, the wrong setting of priorities public policy. There is a huge class of nobility, living on the labor of others, in which there are a lot of idle servants, incapable of useful activity and accustomed to an easy life. Also, too much money is spent on artificially conditioned wars, which also result in ruin and a huge number of cripples and invalids. The state takes care of large proprietors who, in their personal interests, dispossess peasants of land in order to breed sheep ( special case characteristic of English agriculture), and the state does not prevent this. All these circumstances push people to commit crimes, because they have nothing more to do for their survival, feeding their families. The system of justice, based on the application of similar punishment for theft and murder, is also unfair. This is disastrous for the state, as it encourages people to commit more crimes, while having the same risks. In all these statements, the cardinal finds a grain of truth, praises the Portuguese for his insight, he likes Hytloday's arguments; all the circle of the cardinal instantly agrees with this, which at the beginning of the conversation was skeptical towards the traveler. This again proves that servility exists even among the clergy, the hierarchs of the church. Such interesting and non-standard judgments make More wonder again why Raphael does not go to advise the king. It is necessary to re-justify the uselessness of Raphael's knowledge for the royal courts, to go from the other side in this matter.
This time the Portuguese turns in his example to the French court. All royal assistants are busy thinking about various foreign policy actions in order to seize new lands, new wars, and form profitable short-term alliances. At the same time, even the French kingdom itself remains unsettled, not to mention the newly acquired possessions. The consequence of such a policy is the weakening of the state, as both the recalcitrant new territories and the state itself in this struggle are ruined and depleted. Accordingly, it is impossible to sit on more than one chair, and you need to take care exclusively of your kingdom, without encroaching on other people's territories.
The next question is the royal treasury and the welfare of the people. Almost any sovereign seeks to fill his treasury in one way or another, and here advisers come in handy, able to extract taxes from anything, so as not to cause too much discontent among the population. Moreover, these courtiers believe that the main stronghold of power lies in preventing the people from spoiling themselves with wealth and freedom. Poverty and lack are supposedly able to accustom to humility and obedience. But the king is chosen by his subjects to observe the well-being of the people, he must first of all take care of the people's well-being. After all, the main troubles always occur due to dissatisfaction with the structure of the poor classes, who are striving to profit from something. Instead of accumulating huge wealth in the treasury, it is better to spend this money on good and useful things for the state, the development of the social security system for the population.
In response to everything similar examples, Thomas More objects, saying that it is necessary to strive for a "detour" towards good goals without striving to radically change everything at once, without maximalism. To this Hythlodeus remarks that he wants to speak only the truth, without this he will not be of any use, there are many flatterers without him. The “detour” will not lead to anything good, but will only further harm, spoiling even the the right person with the best of intentions in his conciliatory policy. There is no such thing as the least evil, either you say what you think, or you change for the worse under the influence of corrupt people. Such is the fate of a true philosopher, so he has no place in public administration, according to Raphael, in the modern realities of life. Then Raphael comes to his main conclusion, the basis of his contemporary society, which is destroying people. This is nothing but the phenomenon of private property.
Where there is private property, there is no equality and well-being due to constant enmity, the desire to seize as much property as possible, including at the expense of other people. All this leads to the polarization of society into the few haves and the many poor. Mor objects to the Portuguese, arguing that no development is possible without private property. In this he is right, given that without incentives to work, a person loses the desire to work hard and fruitfully, laziness arises, the desire to shift part of the responsibilities to others. It is difficult to work out principles that stimulate a person without self-interest. Hythloday agrees that a prosperous society without private property is hard to believe; for this you need to learn more about Utopia and its orders. A reasonable question arises about the level of civilization of the Utopians in comparison with the Europeans. The Portuguese tells us that the Europeans are more talented, but the Utopians are more diligent and industrious. They quickly borrow the useful innovations of other peoples, while not spoiling their exemplary orders. It's all about a smarter form of government that promotes prosperity and development. After such serious statements, More asks Raphael to describe the Utopian lands in more detail, without missing a single important detail. And we, accordingly, now proceed directly to the analysis of the state of the utopian state, its laws, customs and traditions.
Second book
The Utopian state is located on an island protected by natural barriers, such as shallows, reefs, the coast is also reliably fortified, so that the island is a powerful defensive knot. In ancient times it was a peninsula, but after victorious war the ruler Utop ordered to strengthen it, to dig a channel between it and the land. It was he who brought the wild people to a high degree of culture and education. Takova Short story of this state. Raphael further describes the administrative structure of the country, based on the equality of cities, with the primacy of one, Amaurot, at the center of the state. In addition to cities, there are also villages in which residents work in turns for two years. No one can escape this duty.
The agriculture of the island is very productive due to the fact that people are united in families of 40 people, which is a form of organizing society in the form of small teams responsible for a certain part of the work. Further, the Portuguese describes the city of Amaurot in terms of its location on the ground, internal construction. The city is very strongly fortified, beautiful, all buildings are typical and do not stand out against the general background, residents even change their houses by lot every 10 years, since there is no such thing as private property. This promotes equality in society, the absence of greed and envy. All buildings are very neat, they use the latest achievements of the people of Utopia, they are not inferior to similar European ones.
The procedure for determining officials in the city, who are responsible, among other things, for maintaining this exemplary order, is also interesting. Each year, every 30 families elect an official, a philarch. Each ten of these philarchs is headed by a person called a protofilarch. All these officials choose a prince, one of 4 candidates proposed by the people. The position of the prince is for life, provided that he does not have a desire for tyranny and usurpation of power, which is quite reasonable. Protofilarchs are elected every year, which ensures that there are no injustices in government. They always consult with the prince to make the most effective decision. Any decision on public affairs can be made only through the Senate or the People's Assembly, which contributes to the suppression of any attempts to usurp power. In order to avoid hasty conclusions and decisions on the part of the Senate, none of the proposals is considered on the day of its introduction.
Now let's talk more about the occupations of the population on the island. Agriculture is common to all inhabitants, no one is spared from it. In addition to this, each is trained in some trade, usually the trade of his father. If he wants to learn another craft, he is simply transferred to another family in which they are engaged in this activity. This practice is very interesting, it provides general employment, interest in one's work; philarchs just have to make sure that there is no idleness. But at the same time, there is no overwork, since Utopians have a rather free day, taking into account 6 working hours and 8 hours of sleep.
The rest of the time they usually spend on science, self-development. At the same time, in free time they never play gambling, preferring more intellectual and useful pursuits such as music and dance, public lectures. Thereby moral health population is not undermined by pernicious and vicious entertainments. Such a convenient distribution of time would be impossible without the involvement in the processes of labor and production of almost all categories of the population, taking into account the capabilities of the latter. It is also important to point out the reasons for exemption from labor. This right was used either by philarchs, or by individuals exempted from labor on the advice of the people and the clergy for a thorough study of the sciences. The abilities and aspirations of people to acquire knowledge are taken into account. From this category of the population, persons are selected for all administrative positions in the state (ambassadors, rulers, clergy, etc.). Thanks to the careful attitude of people to their duties, nothing falls into decay, does not start up, but develops dynamically. Accordingly, all buildings and complexes (buildings, production sites) do not need expensive repairs.
It is also important that in the state of the Utopians everything is in abundance. This contributes to a happy life in the state, because they believe that burdensome work is harmful, it is necessary to work as much as is enough to maintain public needs at an acceptable level. It is quite healthy and strong foundation state, based on the well-being of all citizens, not individuals. Then it is worth mentioning that the utopians follow the principle of maintaining a certain number of inhabitants at the level of the family, city, island. They resettle surplus people in colonies outside their state, and, if necessary, return them from there. A completely reasonable principle that maintains stability in the state, the population at a certain level, is quite effective in case of food shortages on the island, epidemics and other unpleasant events.
No less unusual is the process of obtaining material benefits by the inhabitants of the island. Produced goods are deposited in special warehouses, from which each father of the family can take as many benefits as he needs. Such a principle seems impossible, because greed and the desire for acquisition are rooted in the minds of European people. But after all, the Utopians have everything in abundance, there is no point in striving to accumulate in this case. Strikingly different from the European reality of More's time and social services, manifested in excellent medical care and food distribution, regardless of a person's status.
Harmony reigns in families, the younger ones respect the elders, but at the same time, the joint life of different generations does not consist only in moralizing conversations, but is also filled with various pleasures, if only nothing unpleasant happens from them. After all, the human soul is born for happiness, and not for a harsh and ascetic benefactor. At the same time, another principle comes into play, based on respect and recognition of the interests of other members of society.
Phenomena that are unnatural to human nature, such as a pub, a brothel, a wine shop, do not exist in a utopian state. All this contributes to the healthy spirit of the inhabitants, turns them away from laziness and idleness, vicious behavior. Inevitably, from all the previous facts, the conclusion follows that the island of utopians is completely self-sufficient, which makes it possible to make strategic reserves in case of any unforeseen situations. And at the same time, there are still many free goods that, through the state and under its control, are exported to other states at a reasonable price.
Exporting a variety of goods from agricultural products to purple, they receive in return the iron and precious metals they need, gold and silver. These metals are in abundance in the country and therefore are of practically no value to Utopians, unlike Europeans, who are ready to do anything for such treasures. These values are necessary for the recruitment of soldiers in other countries, put up instead of their inhabitants, since human life is the most precious thing for utopians. Or gold is used to bribe enemies and bring discord into their camp. In order to prevent the thirst for profit from undermining society, the authorities of Utopia invented a very active way of using it. Precious metals and stones are used to make chains for slaves, children's toys and utensils for the dirtiest needs. All this contributes to the fact that averts residents from the desire to possess these metals.
To elevate a person according to his wealth, and not his mind or merit, is sheer stupidity. But the inquisitive mind inherent in utopians is held in high esteem in the state. The diligence of residents is manifested in the fact that they very quickly assimilate information, which is manifested in the rapid assimilation of information by them. Greek and comprehension of complex works of ancient Greek classics. The citizens of Utopia received such an opportunity thanks to Raphael and his vigorous activity. Now it is worth considering the issue of slavery in a utopian society. They either turn their citizens into slaves for committing shameful deeds or representatives of foreign peoples sentenced to death and ransomed by utopians. Sometimes hardworking and poor representatives of other nations voluntarily go to, they are treated with gentle treatment, but with the utopians themselves, who fell into slavery for bad deeds, they are doubly harsh. After all, how can one commit a crime with such an ideal and prosperous life? There is no justification for this.
It is no less important, in my opinion, to consider such a civil institution of society as marriage and marital relations. The state seeks to turn people away from disorderly cohabitation by severely punishing adultery. Such behavior shakes the family, the unit of society, sows discord. When choosing a pair for themselves, Utopians pay attention not only to spiritual qualities, but also to appearance, sometimes examining each other, like horse buyers. What is the reason for such behaviour? This is due to the fact that it is possible for utopians to have only one wife, respectively, you need to weigh the pros and cons before making a choice, because then you will have to bear this lot all your life. Divorce is possible either in case of adultery, or in case of an intolerable character, as well as in case of mutual desire with the consent of the senate. But such cases are rare among Utopians, who possess such qualities as duty, nobility, respect, and so on.
In general, Utopians cultivate noble deeds in every possible way, erecting monuments and statues to prominent statesmen in public places. Thus, the people are encouraged to constructive and honest work for the benefit of the whole society. A good idea, effective also thanks to severe punishments against those officials who were not distinguished by crystal honesty. Also, to maintain the foundations of the state, there are a small number of laws that are understandable to every inhabitant of the island. There is also such an institution as independent defense in court, which contributes to the objectivity of the investigation and decision-making. Thus, simple-hearted people are protected from the intrigues of cunning and intriguers.
The fame of the justice of the Utopian officials quickly spread throughout the surrounding countries, especially those that the Utopians had liberated from tyranny by force. Such states ask the inhabitants of a free island for themselves as officials. Such peoples are allies of Utopia. At the same time, in the minds of utopians in matters of friends and allies there is a key difference from the European reality. Unlike European monarchs, the Utopians do not enter into any treaties, as they do not trust this form of agreement. In Europe, however, the greatness of such a thing as a treaty is inviolable. And at the same time, they are violated many times, as some official or state adviser periodically finds a loophole in the complex and confusing wording of agreements. Utopians believe that treaties acquire too much influence in the minds of peoples after their conclusion, which contributes to the separation and exasperation of people, despite their historical and natural fraternal community. Working closely with neighboring countries and peoples, Utopians cannot avoid periodic hostilities different shapes bitterness. Let's take a closer look at this issue.
In general, they do not tolerate war as a phenomenon and start it only in a few exceptional cases: an attack on their borders, an attack on the possessions of their friends, trampling on the trade and other interests of their friends, saving some people from tyranny. Victories achieved at the cost of great bloodshed do not cause them joy, because there is nothing more precious than human life in the minds of utopians. At the same time, victories achieved in any other way, by cunning or deceit, are revered by them as very heroic and worthy deeds. In such a situation, intelligence is applied, a feature of a person that is not inherent in any other living being. Such methods also include the introduction of discord in the camp of enemies, such as offering bribes, rewards for betrayal, extradition of heads of state and the most important officials, alive or dead. Thus, the greed of the peoples allows the Utopians to easily and special efforts to disorganize the resistance of other peoples by introducing a split in one way or another. The death of a small part of the representatives of the tops of such states makes it possible to save the lives of many ordinary people who participate in the war against their will. Thanks to the abundance of jewelry, utopians have the opportunity to bribe at the very top of the power ladder, pushing the nobles in the struggle for the power they coveted, thereby minimizing the combat potential of the enemy. But for the conduct of hostilities, military contingents are still needed, albeit limited ones. For these purposes, there are several sources: these are either soldiers of the allied countries, or soldiers recruited in other states for money, mercenaries. The utopians themselves act as strategists, managers in the troops. But sometimes ordinary citizens of Utopia also have to fight as soldiers. Prudently they avoid unnecessary and secondary battles, but when necessary and inevitable battles fight stubbornly to the last opportunity.
Utopians observe all moral rules when conducting a battle, they don’t cripple or kill people in vain, they willingly take prisoners. What a contrast with any European theater of operations, where no one spares human life, and blood always flows like water. In addition to this, they sacredly honor the truces concluded with enemies, do not destroy infrastructure, farmland in the enemy's country. The captured villages and cities are not plundered, civilians do not tolerate any insults and harassment. Nothing like this can be imagined, for example, during the hostilities between the French and the Spaniards, where the innocent local population suffered the most. The spoils of war, taken from the leadership of the state, are transferred to the utopian allies, while the inhabitants of the island themselves do not take anything for themselves, since they are provided with everything in abundance. The only form of increment of Utopia's capital during wars is the acquisition of part of the estates of local nobles opposed to them into the ownership of the Utopian state. Such revenues make it possible to keep these territories under control, to maintain peace and stability there.
Now it is worth paying attention to the last aspect that characterizes Utopia. This is religion and its features. First important feature- this is diversity in the pantheon of gods, almost every city has its own religion, and the state does not impose any one for all residents. But all these ideas about God agree that their nature is one, it simply manifests itself in different entities. You can profess your religion without any fear, but at the same time you cannot massively agitate for it, vilify other beliefs, thereby sowing confusion among the masses. You can convert to your religion, but only in an exclusively peaceful way, thanks to persuasion and evidence. A person who does not believe among utopians is not thought of as a person in principle, since the absence of faith is interpreted as a rejection of a higher nature human soul. After all, such a person is not afraid of anything except the legislation, which he can bypass if he wishes. And this means that he is extremely unreliable, you cannot trust him with important matters. Very interesting and the attitude of citizens to death. Their death is considered the transition of the soul to the highest bliss. Those who leave this world with fear are afraid of the end because their soul is burdened with some bad deeds. The rest of the people die cheerful, because they are sure that they follow the call of God and nothing bad in that world threatens them. Various superstitions are not peculiar to them. The few priests are universally respected, as they are chosen by the people on the basis of a vote. Priests are engaged in the fact that they monitor human morals, they are engaged in the education of boys and young men. At the same time, there is a completely unthinkable phenomenon: women can also be priests. Other nations also have respect for them, thanks to their intercession and peacekeeping during hostilities, and the promotion of peace agreements. In general, the religion of the Utopians is maximally rationalized and humanized, freed from various superstitions and remnants of the past.
Conclusion
The work of Thomas More "Utopia" is one of the greatest philosophical works in the history of mankind. It formulated the most advanced ideas of that time, revealed the main contradictions of the period of the birth of capitalism in Europe, the discrepancy between the interests of elites and ordinary citizens, pointed out the most pressing problems of ordinary people, such as poverty, hunger, etc., called on the society of that period to become more just and healthy. Mor sought to establish clear boundaries and relationships between religion and reason, to make society more humanistic and open in his model, avoiding both the complete denial of religion and various superstitions. And although this is only an ideal model, it reflects the ideas and provisions that every state should strive for in its development, based on greater social justice and general well-being. He sought to single out domestic politics as a priority over foreign ones; first of all, you need to worry about the lives of your own citizens, their well-being.
The impetus for writing this book was undoubtedly also More's impressions of the rural life of the population of England, difficult and unenviable, and of the moral state of contemporary urban and high society, saturated with incorrect and inert morality, distorted by the excessive interference of scholastic philosophy in the minds of people. Also, in his opinion, the main problem of the separation and alienation of people is the presence of private property, inciting the thirst for profit and acquisition. Mohr's scheme tells us not to ready recipe how it is worth rebuilding society, but roughly outlines the path that can lead people to happiness and prosperity. It is no coincidence that More wrote his work in a discussion form. "Utopia" became the forerunner of socialism, which later received not only the theoretical justification given by More, but also practical ways and principles of implementation that are really feasible within the framework of society. That is why the role of this book is difficult to overestimate.
Thomas More truly became the founder of such a trend in philosophy as utopian socialism, which was difficult to imagine before him. Thus, he forever inscribed his name in the history of mankind, one of the first to consider in such detail and detail the issues of social inequality and injustice in society.
In 1520, a remarkable fighter for freedom and equality, Thomas Müntzer, died. It happened in Germany. And 15 years later, in England, the head of another remarkable person, Thomas More, rolled off the scaffold. The glory of these two people at one time thundered throughout Europe. They lived in different countries and had nothing in common with each other either in methods of action or in temperament, but both were communists by conviction. One is an agitator, organizer and leader of the people, who gathered peasants and artisans, before whom the sovereign princes and clergy shuddered. The other is a scientist and statesman, who reached the highest position of Lord Chancellor at the court of the English king and wrote works that surprised the whole world. Both were equal to each other in courage and firmness of convictions, both had the same goal - the achievement of a just order of society, and both ended their lives on the scaffold.
They were the first to widely preach the ideas of communism in the era of the religious struggle against feudalism.
In the 16th century, new colonies in America and again open lands, who gave the English merchants untold wealth, began to buy English goods. Sales increased, and, therefore, it was necessary to increase production. The demand for English wool began to grow in foreign markets, and it became so expensive that it became much more profitable to breed sheep than to rent land to peasants. Then the landowners began to drive the tenant peasants from their lands, which they needed for pastures. The peasants left without land had no choice but to sell their labor, their working hands to merchants in manufactories. Thus, starting from the 16th century, a new economic system, the capitalist one, gradually began to take shape in England. It is called so because capital played the main role in it, with the help of which the merchant could start a large enterprise and buy the necessary labor. In addition to the ruined peasantry, a huge number of dismissed servants and various hangers-on of the nobility appeared, which turned out to be unnecessary due to the cessation of internecine wars. As a result of all this, more people were left without work than industry could absorb. And at that time, being unemployed was enough to fall into the hands of the executioner, because poverty and unemployment were declared crimes worthy of the death penalty.
In 1520, the English King Henry VIII announced that only the elderly and incapacitated beggars were allowed to beg, while the healthy were sentenced to flogging and imprisonment. They should be tied to a wheelbarrow and scourged until the blood begins to flow from the body; then they must take an oath to return to their homeland or to where they have lived for the last three years, and set to work ... And what kind of work? Where to find it?
In 1536 the law became even stricter. If someone is caught a second time as a vagabond, then he is again punished with whips and his ear is cut off, and for the third time he is executed as a serious criminal and enemy of society. According to the chronicler, under Henry VIII, 7,200 people were executed in this way. But with this the king could not eliminate poverty.
The declaration of unemployment and poverty as a crime worthy of death, as well as dreams of the resurrection of equality and brotherhood of the most ancient Christian communities, could not stop the growth of contradictions. And there was only one person at that time, a person who was so bold and far-sighted that he could point people new way to the resolution of all contradictions and difficulties, to indicate a step on the new path to a different social system. This man, who painted an unprecedented picture of the future of communism, was Thomas More, the King's Lord Chancellor. He was born in London in the family of a judge in 1478. After school he studied at the University of Oxford. But his father wanted to make a lawyer out of him and therefore deprived him of any help. Mor lived from hand to mouth, he was haunted by poverty, often he had nothing to buy even a boot. In the end, he had to leave the university, and at the behest of his father, he began to attend law school in London. In 1501 he became a lawyer, sensitive, sympathetic and disinterested. Until 1504, Thomas More lived near the Carthusian monastery, attended church services and wanted to become a monk himself, but abandoned this intention when he was convinced that the clergy had lost their former severity and abstinence. He returned to worldly life and in 1504 was elected to Parliament, where, despite his youth, he had considerable influence.
At that time, England was already taking part in world trade and London acquired the importance of a world city along with Lisbon, Antwerp and Paris. When King Henry VIII came to the throne, More was soon sent by one of the ambassadors to the Netherlands to conclude a trade agreement. He stayed in the Netherlands for 6 months. Negotiations left him a lot of free time, and here he wrote his famous essay: “A golden book, as useful as it is funny, oh best device state and the new island of Utopia" ("utopia" - in Greek - "a place that does not exist"). The first edition of the book appeared in 1516, and then it was reprinted an infinite number of times in all European languages.
In this book More described an ideal state without oppression of the weak and without forced labor.
The impression from the "Island of Utopia" was huge. This work immediately placed More among the first politicians in England. In living images, Mor draws in his book a picture of a well-organized state, already created and living a full life on an imaginary island. The life of this classless nation-state is described so completely that it seemed to More that all contradictions were resolved. More knew life too well to believe that any class, no matter how just their intentions, could hold power in their hands without oppressing the poor majority. More looked far into the future and contrasted the communist system, in which everything belongs to everyone, to class society. In his state, everything was distributed according to the principle: work is obligatory, everyone works as much as he can and receives as much as he needs, every work is rewarded according to his deserts, and each person lives in luxury, although no one receives more than the other. There is no private property. On the island of Utopia, there are 24 large cities, identical in language, customs, laws and institutions. In addition, there are estates in the country, equipped with all necessary agricultural implements. These estates are inhabited by people who gradually move from the cities to the countryside. Every rural family must have at least forty members, men and women. Every year, 20 people from each family, having spent two years in the estate, return to the city and are replaced by twenty others - townspeople who learn agriculture from the remaining twenty, who have already lived a year on the estate and therefore know Agriculture. The queue for farmers is introduced so that no one, against their will, is forced to do hard and painstaking agricultural work for too long.
The villagers cultivate the fields, look after the livestock and cut firewood, which is transported to the city. They are also engaged in artificial breeding of chickens with the help of special devices for incubating eggs ... The main occupation of the Utopians is agriculture, but along with this, everyone learns the craft as their specialty, and both men and women learn it. Their crafts are mainly in the processing of wool and linen; in addition, there is the craft of a bricklayer, a blacksmith and a carpenter. The other branches of labor have very little use.
They work in Utopia only six hours a day: three hours from morning to afternoon, then they rest for two hours, and after rest they work for another three hours. Then dinner follows. They go to bed early and sleep for eight hours. The rest of the time everyone spends at their discretion. Six hours of work a day is more than enough to produce the things needed for a healthy and enjoyable life.
Everyone works, except for the leaders of society and those who have received permission from the people to devote themselves to science. If such a person does not justify the hopes placed on him, then he is again transferred to the category of artisans.
The villagers produce food for themselves and for the townspeople. The latter also work for the city and the countryside. Each city annually sends three of its wisest old men to the capital, who solve common affairs for the whole island. They collect information, where and in what there is an excess or deficiency, and then the second is eliminated first. Cities that give their surplus to others receive nothing from them for this, because they themselves use everything they need from others, also without compensation. Thus the whole island is, as it were, one family. Money in Utopia is completely unknown. All things are in abundance. There is no reason to describe that anyone will require more than he needs, because everyone is sure that he will never have to endure want.
Enormous magnificent palaces were built on every street of the city. They live "siphogrants" - officials who are elected one for every 30 families. Each of the palaces is attached to 30 families living on both sides. The heads of the kitchens of these palaces come to the market at certain hours, where everyone takes the necessary products needed for 30 families. But the best products are primarily sent to the sick in hospitals.
At certain times, every 30 families go to their palaces for lunch and dinner. In the markets it is not impeded to take food to everyone as much as anyone wants, but there is no one who would voluntarily dine separately at home, when there is plenty of good and prepared food nearby in the palace. Meals in the palace are prepared by women in turn, and boys and girls serve at the table.
The main task of the elected syphogrants is to see that no one is idle. All siphogrants appoint a prince from four candidates chosen by the people. The office of prince is for life. He is deprived of office only if suspicion falls on him that he is striving for autocracy. Religion on the island is a personal matter for everyone. Priests, like all officials, are elected by the people.
The population of Utopia hates war and considers military glory to be the most unenviable. War is necessary only to defend one's homeland or one's friends and to liberate an oppressed people from the yoke of tyranny. Scientists are highly respected. They are exempted from physical labor, but science is not a monopoly of scientists. Generally early in the morning there are public readings which all men and women can attend. Depending on their inclination, they listen to readings on certain subjects.
So, in Utopia there is no private property and no money. Everyone deals only with the affairs of society, and everything is distributed evenly according to the principle: everyone works as much as he can and receives as much as he needs. And although there is no property, everyone is rich there and everyone has a calm and carefree life.
The communism of Thomas More was utopian, unrealizable. However, it was created by a deep knowledge of life and an understanding of the needs of that era. Mor was the first to attempt to adapt communism to the newly emerging capitalist society and was the first in the world to put forward the basic principle of communism, which later entered the theory of scientific communism by Karl Marx: from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.
More science for the first time comes to the service of people. Science, which seemed hostile to Christianity, becomes necessary in the creation of a new, just system. Pestilence makes science accessible to all as the highest pleasure. But Mohr did not indicate the paths to achieving a communist society, and at that time he could not do this.
Thomas More lived half a thousand years ago. Scientific communism portrayed utopian scientists as soft-bodied, fantasizing people. Is it true? Thomas More accepted his death for his convictions, according to the memoirs of a contemporary, without fear, without asking for mercy, without bowing his head. In 1535, a fifty-seven-year-old writer, humanist, and philosopher refused to swear allegiance to the English king, thereby remaining devoted to the primacy. His faith did not allow for duplicity. Thomas More calmly walked to the scaffold, the favorite of all London, an unsurpassed orator, respected for his subtle wit, civic stand, decency, capable of stopping a riot with his word.
From the pen of just such a person (a humanist, but not a revolutionary!) The legendary book "Utopia" appeared. Thomas More addressed it to monarchs and scholars, specifically writing it in Latin as a novel-reflection, a novel-call for a humanistic reorganization of society, based on 150 years later, "Utopia" was translated into all European languages.
The novel begins with an elegant "bridge" between truth and fiction - this is the beginning of the book that Thomas More created, "Utopia". Its content is the traveler's story "about unknown lands". A real historical character - Peter Egidius introduces the author to a fictional character, the Portuguese Raphael Gitpodei, an associate of a real traveler. The writer puts all his thoughts about the arrangement into the mouth of Raphael ideal country future. Consistently conveys the ideas of the new in his book Thomas More - "Utopia". Summary it can be described as a description of an unknown state - an island lost in the Indian Ocean. The political structure of Utopia is a federation ruled by the senate, with the capital Amaurot, uniting 54 sovereign cities. Morality, in essence, corresponds to Christian-humanistic principles. Utopia is completely ideologically tolerant, guided by the principle
It should be noted that the idea of the book as a vision of the foundations of a future democratic society by the scientist Thomas More was born in conditions when the feudal lords were executed for disobedience, and the emerging bourgeois system was no less bloody, the mechanism of "wild capitalism" ruthlessly sent more and more thousands of peasants over the brink of poverty. It is precisely as a scientist's Christian protest against such oppression that Thomas More creates his novel Utopia. Summary - a project of the state, where discrimination is impossible in principle. To do this, Mor decides to deprive this society of the basis of inequality - classes. The philosopher also equalizes citizens both in rights and socially. The principle of state organization is "full internal consent". People volunteer to work six hours a day on weekdays. Society makes sure that they can enjoy life in their free time, gain spiritual freedom and education. At the same time, the social standard is a blameless life. What is the "primary social unit of Utopia"? It is determined by the writer according to the principle of the average workshop of the manufactory. Every 40 peasant families, according to Mohr's theory, constitute a "family" (commune). A "family" specializes in a certain craft, and the "transition" of a person between families is allowed.
At the same time, each Utopian is trained, in addition to his craft, to agriculture and is obliged per year certain time engage in peasant labor. Peasant labor is the primary basis for the well-being of the state, says Thomas More (Utopia) in his novel. The summary of the book clearly outlines the contours of the future democratic society. All power is elective. 30 families choose a philarch. 10 philarchs are under the control of a protophilarch, who chooses a scientist. Protofilarchs form city senates, choosing a prince (mayor). The most important economic and political issues are decided by city meetings. At the same meetings, officials are elected and their periodic reports are heard. Clergymen, ambassadors, protofilarchs, the head of state are chosen from among the scientists.
The humanist is convinced that private property is evil. This conviction came to Thomas More through his rich legal practice. He could judge, not in general, but in specific cases, that it was private ownership of land that determined the possibility of the genocide of peasants because of the benefits of sheep breeding (“sheep ate people”). To exclude such injustice, the author of the novel suggested that the means of production should belong to society. Accordingly, the measure of the distribution of national wealth in the new society should be not private property, but the expended labor of family-handicraft farms. Can we claim that the first formulation of principles in history was given by Thomas More (Utopia)? The summary of the book shows that, of course, it is not ideal, but it predictively illuminates aspects of the organization of a future democratic society. Many of the foundations of the future of socialism are “not thought out”, which is not surprising, because the novel was written half a thousand years ago! For example, in the society of the future, there is practically no private life of citizens. Trips from city to city must be accompanied by "removal of a citizen from the register" and "registration". Looks somewhat unconvincing.
However, let us ask ourselves the question: “Have the ideas of the utopists gone into oblivion (according to the statements of the Bolsheviks?”) Answering it, let's turn to the present: the Swedes, for example, believe that their state is socialist. Of course, there is also private property, but at the same time, Sweden declares the creation of collective capital, a non-discriminatory labor market, social security, and universal employment. But all this is present in More's Utopia!
Riddle from Thomas More - the title of the book. What subtext is encrypted in the name of the invented state (literally - “the country that does not exist”)? Could a person whose life is faith and burning be passive? Most likely, the title of the book hides hope: “There is no such country, but in time it will be!”
Four hundred years later, More's ideas, enriched by the mechanism of socialist cooperation, were proposed by Professor Chayanov in relation to the Russian peasant Christian community. He argued that the agricultural cooperation of the peasants is more profitable for the state than large capitalist farms. In Russia, then they chose an alternative path - Stolypin's reforms. However, there is a real, visible implementation of this project. At the turn of the current and last centuries, the countries of Latin America, largely thanks to Chayanov's cooperation, raised their agriculture to the level of world standards.
THOMAS MOHR: Utopia
The author of a fantastic (you can’t call it otherwise) treatise, which gave its name to a whole trend of socio-political thought, was not only an outstanding humanist writer and “mad dreamer”, but, in addition, also a well-known public figure of his time. Lord Chancellor at the court of Henry VIII, he ended his life on the block for refusing to recognize the king as the head of the Anglican Church and disagreeing with the next marriage of the monarch. The famous novel was written, as it is customary to say, in his free time from his main work and immediately brought all-European fame to its author.
Utopia means "a place that does not exist", "non-existent place". In fact, it exists, but only in the imagination of the author and reader. More's task is to outline a model of an ideal state, free from the vices and shortcomings of previously known social structures. Thought is not new More is by no means a pioneer of utopian thought. Before him and after him, there were any number of such projects - both in the West and in the East. But all of them were given an artificial name invented by an English humanist thinker. This alone makes his name immortal.
The story of the traveler who visited the mysterious island of Utopia begins casually, dispassionately and with the smallest details - as if it were about good old England. Many commentators, who were particularly concerned about the prototype of a utopian state, leaned towards this solution. However, others placed it anywhere, in various corners of the earth.
The island of the Utopians, in its middle part, where it is at its widest, extends for two hundred miles, then for a considerable distance this width decreases a little, and towards the ends the island gradually narrows on both sides.
If these ends could be circled with compasses, a circle of five hundred miles would be obtained. They give the island the appearance of a nascent moon. Its horns are separated by a bay that extends about eleven miles. Throughout this vast distance, the water, surrounded on all sides by land, is protected from the winds like a great lake, rather stagnant than stormy, and almost the entire interior of this country serves as a harbor, sending ships, to the great advantage of people, in all directions.
But the main thing, of course, is something else. The main thing is a detailed description of the structure of the Utopian state, based on the principles of justice and equality. Here there is no inhuman oppression and a sweatshop system of labor, a sharp division into rich and poor, and gold is generally used to punish certain offenses, the guilty must wear heavy gold chains. The cult of the Utopians is a harmoniously developed personality.
“…” Since they are all busy useful thing and to do it, they need only a small amount of labor, then in the end they have an abundance in everything.
They live in harmony among themselves, since not a single official shows arrogance and does not harbor fear. They are called fathers, and they behave with dignity. The due honor given to them by the Utopians is voluntary, and it does not have to be demanded by force. "..."
They have very few laws, and for a people with such institutions, very few are enough. They even especially disapprove of other peoples because countless volumes of laws and interpreters on them seem insufficient to them.
“...” According to the Utopians, no one can be considered an enemy if he has not done us any offense; the bonds of nature take the place of contract, and it is better and stronger to unite people by affection rather than contractual agreements, by the heart and not by words. "..."
The Utopians greatly abhor war as a truly brutal act, although it is not used so often among any breed of animals as among humans, contrary to the custom of almost all peoples, they consider nothing to be so inglorious as the glory obtained by war. "..."
Thomas More recreated such an attractive model of social organization that it seemed that everyone who read his book should immediately adopt progressive ideas and try to put them into practice. But this did not happen in the sixteenth century, nor in any subsequent. What has been said equally applies to the countless string of utopian socialists who lived and worked after the author of Utopia itself. The unrealizable image he invented, however, turned out to be so attractive that sometimes it seemed that any hopes for bright prospects for social development and improvement of social relations - a complete utopia.
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