In ancient times, Lithuanian tribes occupied the northern lands almost to present-day Tambov. But then they merged with the Finno-Ugric and Slavic populations. Lithuanian tribes survived only in the Baltic states and Belarus. The central part of this area was occupied by the Lithuanian tribe or Lithuanians, to the west lived the Zhmud, and even further to the west lived the Prussians. In the east of modern Belarusian lands lived the Yatvags, and the Golyad tribe was located in the Kolomna region.
From these scattered tribes, the Lithuanian prince Mindovg created a single principality. After his murder by conspirators in 1263, the Lithuanian princes fought among themselves for power until the beginning of the 14th century. The winner in these internecine wars was Prince Gediminas (reigned 1316-1341). It was to him that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania owed its successful policy of conquest in the 14th century.
The very first conquest was Black Rus'. This is an area near the city of Grodno - the westernmost part of Rus'. Then Gedimin subjugated Minsk, Polotsk, and Vitebsk. After this, the Lithuanians penetrated into Galicia and Volyn. But Gedimina failed to conquer Galicia. The Poles occupied it, and the Lithuanians settled only in eastern Volyn and began to prepare for a campaign against Kyiv.
Black Rus' on the map
At the time described, Kyiv had already lost its greatness, but Stanislav, who reigned in the city, decided to defend himself and the townspeople to the end. In 1321, he entered into battle with the army of Gediminas, but was defeated. And the victorious Lithuanians besieged Kyiv. The people of Kiev were forced to submit to the Grand Duke of Lithuania on the basis of vassalage. That is, all property was left to the people of Kiev, but Kyiv prince fell into complete submission to the victors.
After the capture of Kyiv, the Lithuanian army continued its military expansion. As a result of this, Russian cities as far as Kursk and Chernigov were conquered. Thus, under Gediminas and his son Olgerd, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania arose in the 14th century. It continued its policy of conquest after the death of Gediminas, when his sons Olgerd and Keistut entered the political arena.
The brothers divided their spheres of influence. Keistut settled in Zhmudi and resisted the Germans, and Olgerd pursued a policy of conquest in the Russian lands. It should be noted that Olgerd and his nephew Vytautas formally converted to Orthodoxy. Lithuanian princes married Russian princesses and united the Rurikovichs from the Turovo-Pinsk land around them. That is, they gradually included Russian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Olgerd managed to subjugate a vast territory up to the Black Sea and the Don. In 1363, the Lithuanians defeated the Tatars at the Blue Waters (Sinyukha River) and captured the western part of the steppe between the Dnieper and the mouth of the Danube. Thus, they reached the Black Sea. But Lithuania continued to remain sandwiched between Orthodox Russia and Catholic Europe. The Lithuanians waged active wars with the Teutonic and Livonian Orders, and therefore Poland could become their ally.
Poland at that time was in a state of deep crisis. She was periodically tormented by both the anti-papist German orders and the Czechs, who captured Krakow and the surrounding lands. The latter were driven out with difficulty by the Polish king Wladyslaw Loketek from the Piast dynasty. In 1370, this dynasty ceased to exist, and the Frenchman Louis of Anjou became the Polish king. He passed the crown on to his daughter Jadwiga. The Polish magnates strongly advised that to marry legally with the Lithuanian prince Jogaila, the son of Olgerd. Thus, the Poles wanted to unite Poland with Lithuania and stop German expansion.
In 1385, Jagiello married Jadwiga and became the full ruler of Lithuania and Poland in accordance with the Union of Krevo. In 1387, the population of Lithuania officially adopted the Catholic faith. However, not everyone greeted this with enthusiasm. Those Lithuanians who associated themselves with the Russians did not want to accept Catholicism.
I took advantage of this cousin Jagiello Vitovt. He led the opposition and led the fight for the grand ducal throne. This man was looking for allies among the Lithuanians, and among the Poles, and among the Russians, and among the crusaders. The opposition was so strong that in 1392 Jagiello concluded the Ostrov Agreement with Vytautas. According to him, Vytautas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Jogaila appropriated to himself the title of Supreme Prince of Lithuania.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century on the map
Vytautas continued his conquest of Russian lands and in 1395 captured Smolensk. Soon he refused to obey Jogaila and, thanks to an alliance with the Tatars, annexed the large territory of the Wild Field to Lithuania. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania significantly expanded its borders in the 14th century. However, in 1399, military luck turned away from Vytautas. He lost Smolensk and part of other lands. In 1401, Lithuania was so weakened that it again entered into an alliance with Poland - the Vilna-Radom Union.
After this, Vitovt again acquired serious political weight. In 1406, an official border was established between Muscovite Russia and Lithuania. With the Teutonic Order Principality of Lithuania fought a successful fight. In 1410, the Battle of Grunwald took place, in which the crusading knights suffered a crushing defeat. IN last years During his reign, Vytautas sought to once again separate Lithuania from Poland and, for this purpose, decided to be crowned. But this idea ended in failure.
Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century became a militarily and politically strong state. It united, significantly expanded its borders and acquired high international authority. Important historical event became the adoption of Catholicism. This step brought Lithuania closer to Europe, but alienated it from Rus'. This played a major political role in subsequent centuries.
Alexey Starikov
In the XIV-XV centuries. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia was a real rival of Muscovite Rus' in the struggle for dominance in Eastern Europe. It strengthened under Prince Gediminas (ruled 1316-1341). Russian cultural influence prevailed here at this time. Gedemin and his sons were married to Russian princesses, and the Russian language dominated at court and in official business. Lithuanian writing did not exist at that time. Until the end of the 14th century. Russian regions within the state did not experience national-religious oppression. Under Olgerd (reigned 1345-1377), the principality actually became the dominant power in the region. The position of the state was especially strengthened after Olgerd defeated the Tatars in the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362. During his reign, the state included most of what is now Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and the Smolensk region. For all residents of Western Rus', Lithuania became a natural center of resistance to traditional opponents - the Horde and the Crusaders. In addition, in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the middle of the 14th century, the Orthodox population numerically predominated, with whom the pagan Lithuanians lived quite peacefully, and sometimes unrest was quickly suppressed (for example, in Smolensk). The lands of the principality under Olgerd extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea steppes, the eastern border ran approximately along the current border of the Smolensk and Moscow regions. There were trends leading towards the formation of a new version of Russian statehood in the southern and western lands of the former Kyiv state.
FORMATION OF THE GRAND DUCHIES OF LITHUANIA AND RUSSIAN
In the first half of the 14th century. appeared in Europe strong state- Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. It owes its origin to Grand Duke Gediminas (1316-1341), who during the years of his reign captured and annexed the Brest, Vitebsk, Volyn, Galician, Lutsk, Minsk, Pinsk, Polotsk, Slutsk and Turov lands to Lithuania. The Smolensk, Pskov, Galicia-Volyn and Kiev principalities became dependent on Lithuania. Many Russian lands, seeking protection from the Mongol-Tatars, joined Lithuania. Internal order in the annexed lands did not change, but their princes had to recognize themselves as vassals of Gediminas, pay him tribute and supply troops when necessary. Gediminas himself began to call himself “the king of the Lithuanians and many Russians.” Official language and the old Russian (close to modern Belarusian) language became the language of office work of the principality. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania there was no persecution on religious or national grounds.
In 1323, Lithuania had a new capital - Vilnius. According to legend, one day Gediminas was hunting at the foot of the mountain at the confluence of the Vilni and Neris rivers. Having killed a huge aurochs, he and his warriors decided to spend the night near an ancient pagan sanctuary. In a dream, he dreamed of a wolf dressed in iron armor, who howled like a hundred wolves. The high priest Lizdeika, called to interpret the dream, explained that he should build a city in this place - the capital of the state and that the fame of this city would spread throughout the world. Gediminas listened to the priest's advice. A city was built, which took its name from the Vilna River. Gediminas moved his residence here from Trakai.
From Vilnius in 1323-1324, Gediminas wrote letters to the Pope and the cities of the Hanseatic League. In them, he declared his desire to convert to Catholicism and invited artisans, merchants, and farmers to Lithuania. The Crusaders understood that Lithuania’s adoption of Catholicism would mean the end of their “missionary” mission in the eyes of Western Europe. Therefore, they began to incite local pagans and Orthodox Christians against Gediminas. The prince was forced to abandon his plans - he announced to the papal legates about the alleged mistake of the clerk. However, Christian churches in Vilnius continued to be built.
The Crusaders soon resumed military operations against Lithuania. In 1336 they besieged the Samogitian castle of Pilenai. When its defenders realized that they could not resist for long, they burned the castle and themselves died in the fire. On November 15, 1337, Ludwig IV of Bavaria presented the Teutonic Order with a Bavarian castle built near the Nemunas, which was to become the capital of the conquered state. However, this state had yet to be conquered.
After the death of Gediminas, the principality passed to his seven sons. The Grand Duke was considered the one who ruled in Vilnius. The capital went to Jaunutis. His brother Kestutis, who inherited Grodno, the Principality of Trakai and Samogitia, was dissatisfied with the fact that Jaunutis turned out to be weak ruler and could not come to his aid in the fight against the crusaders. In the winter of 1344-1345, Kestutis occupied Vilnius and shared power with his other brother, Algirdas (Olgerd). Kestutis led the fight against the crusaders. He repelled 70 campaigns to Lithuania by the Teutonic Order and 30 by the Livonian Order. There was not a single major battle in which he did not take part. Kestutis’s military talent was appreciated even by his enemies: each of the crusaders, as their own sources report, would consider it the greatest honor to shake Kestutis’s hand.
Algirdas, the son of a Russian mother, like his father Gediminas, paid more attention to the seizure of Russian lands. During the years of his reign, the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania doubled. Algirdas annexed Kyiv, Novgorod-Seversky, Right Bank Ukraine and Podol to Lithuania. The capture of Kyiv led to a clash with the Mongol-Tatars. In 1363, the army of Algirdas defeated them at Blue Waters, the southern Russian lands were freed from Tatar dependence. Algirdas' father-in-law, Prince Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tver, asked his son-in-law for support in the fight against Moscow. Three times (1368, 1370 and 1372) Algirdas made a campaign against Moscow, but could not take the city, after which peace was eventually concluded with the Moscow prince.
After the death of Algirdas in 1377, civil strife began in the country. The throne of the Grand Duke of Lithuania was given to the son of Algirdas from his second marriage, Jagiello (Yagello). Andrei (Andryus), the son from his first marriage, rebelled and fled to Moscow, asking for support there. He was received in Moscow and sent to reconquer the Novgorod-Seversky lands from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the fight against Andrei, Jagiello turned to the Order for help, promising to convert to Catholicism. In secret from Kestutis, a peace treaty was concluded between the Order and Jogaila (1380). Having secured a reliable rear for himself, Jagiello went with an army to help Mamai against, hoping to punish Moscow for supporting Andrei and to share with Oleg Ryazansky (also an ally of Mamai) the lands of the Moscow principality. However, Jagiello arrived at the Kulikovo field late: the Mongol-Tatars had already suffered a crushing defeat. Meanwhile, Kestutis learned of a secret agreement concluded against him. In 1381 he occupied Vilnius, expelled Jogaila from there and sent him to Vitebsk. However, a few months later, in the absence of Kestutis, Jogaila, together with his brother Skirgaila, captured Vilnius and then Trakai. Kestutis and his son Vytautas were invited to negotiations at Jogaila's headquarters, where they were captured and placed in Krevo Castle. Kestutis was treacherously killed, and Vytautas managed to escape. Jagiello began to rule alone.
In 1383, the Order, with the help of Vytautas and the Samogitian barons, resumed military operations against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The allies captured Trakai and burned Vilnius. Under these conditions, Jagiello was forced to seek support from Poland. In 1385, a dynastic union was concluded between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Polish state in Krevo (Krakow) Castle. IN next year Jagiello was baptized, receiving the name Vladislav, married the Polish queen Jadwiga and became the Polish king - the founder of the Jagiellonian dynasty, which ruled Poland and Lithuania for over 200 years. Implementing the union in practice, Jagiello created the Vilnius bishopric, baptized Lithuania, and equalized the rights of the Lithuanian feudal lords who converted to Catholicism with the Polish ones. Vilnius received the right of self-government (Magdeburg Law).
Vytautas, who fought with Jogaila for some time, returned to Lithuania in 1390, and in 1392 an agreement was concluded between the two rulers: Vytautas took possession of the Principality of Trakai and became the de facto ruler of Lithuania (1392-1430). After campaigns in 1397-1398 to the Black Sea, he brought Tatars and Karaites to Lithuania and settled them in Trakai. Vytautas strengthened the Lithuanian state and expanded its territory. He deprived the appanage princes of power, sending his governors to manage the lands. In 1395, Smolensk was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and attempts were made to conquer Novgorod and Pskov. The power of Vytautas extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In order to provide himself with a reliable rear in the fight against the crusaders, Vytautas signed an agreement with the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily I (who was married to Vytautas’s daughter, Sophia). The Ugra River became the borders between the great principalities.
OLGERD, AKA ALGIDRAS
V. B. Antonovich (“Essay on the History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania”) gives us the following masterful description of Olgerd: “Olgerd, according to the testimony of his contemporaries, was distinguished primarily by deep political talents, he knew how to take advantage of circumstances, correctly outlined the goals of his political aspirations, and advantageously positioned alliances and successfully chose the time to implement his political plans. Extremely reserved and prudent, Olgerd was distinguished by his ability to keep his political and military plans in impenetrable secrecy. Russian chronicles, which are generally not favorable to Olgerd due to his clashes with northeastern Russia, call him “evil,” “godless,” and “flattering”; however, they recognize in him the ability to take advantage of circumstances, restraint, cunning - in a word, all the qualities necessary to strengthen one’s power in the state and to expand its borders. In relation to various nationalities, it can be said that all Olgerd’s sympathies and attention were focused on the Russian people; Olgerd, according to his views, habits and family connections, belonged to the Russian people and served as its representative in Lithuania.” At the very time when Olgerd strengthened Lithuania by annexing the Russian regions, Keistut was its defender before the crusaders and deserved the glory of the people's hero. Keistut is a pagan, but even his enemies, the crusaders, recognize in him the qualities of an exemplary Christian knight. The Poles recognized the same qualities in him.
Both princes divided the administration of Lithuania so precisely that Russian chronicles know only Olgerd, and German ones only know Keistut.
LITHUANIA AT THE RUSSIA MILLENNIUM MONUMENT
The lower tier of figures is a high relief on which, as a result of a long struggle, 109 finally approved figures are placed, depicting outstanding figures of the Russian state. Under each of them, on a granite base, there is a signature (name), written in a Slavic stylized font.
The figures depicted on the high relief are divided by the author of the Monument project into four sections: Enlighteners, State people; Military people and heroes; Writers and artists...
The Department of State People is placed on east side The monument begins directly behind the “Enlighteners” with the figure of Yaroslav the Wise, after whom come: Vladimir Monomakh, Gediminas, Olgerd, Vytautas, the princes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Zakharenko A.G. History of the construction of the Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod. Scientific notes" of the Faculty of History and Philology of the Novgorod State pedagogical institute. Vol. 2. Novgorod. 1957
At the time of its formation, at the end of the 13th century and the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a confederation of Lithuanian and Russian lands and principalities united under the suzerainty of the Grand Duke. Each of the lands constituted an independent sociopolitical unit. Throughout the 15th century, the grand dukes tried to strengthen the power of the central government over all the territories of the grand duchy.
However, for a long time it was difficult to overcome the resistance of local authorities trying to maintain their former rights. Each region enjoyed broad autonomy, which was ensured by a special privilege (charter) of the Grand Duke. In the privilege issued in 1561 to the Vitebsk land, the Grand Duke swore an oath not to force the inhabitants of this region to resettle to any other region of the Grand Duchy (unlike Moscow policy); not to send soldiers from the indigenous population for garrison service in any other land; and not to summon a Vitebsk citizen (resident of Vitebsk land) to Lithuania for trial. Similar charters were issued to Polotsk, Smolensk (nine years before its capture by Muscovy), Kyiv and Volyn lands. In many cases, the affairs of each of these lands were discussed and conducted by local residents - landowning nobles and those who lived in large cities. Local noble assemblies constantly met in Volyn.
The process of strengthening the power of the central government over the autonomous lands was motivated, as in Muscovy, by the military and financial considerations of the Grand Duke and the council of nobles. In the 14th and early 15th centuries, the Teutonic Order posed a danger to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. At the end of the 15th century, the Grand Duke of Moscow laid claim to the Western Russian lands, considering them an equal inheritance to his gender. Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as well as Muscovy, was constantly attacked by the Tatars, and in the 16th and 17th centuries Western Rus', and Poland were forced to repel the offensive of the Ottoman Turks. Better organization needed economic resources countries and more efficient system management so that the Lithuanian state can cope with constantly emerging difficulties.
One of the first tasks of the Grand Duke was to bring into order those parts of the territory over which he had direct power, that is, the lands of the rulers. The main population in these domains were the sovereign's peasants, but part of the sovereign's lands was transferred to the "sovereign nobility", those who owned plots of the sovereign's lands, being in the position of servants of the Grand Duke. Their position was similar to the owners of estates in Muscovy, and the term “estate” itself was often used in Western Russian documents. Residents of small towns located on the ruler's lands were also under the direct authority of the Grand Duke.
In order to make the management of the crown's possessions more efficient, they were divided into a number of districts, each of which was headed by a grand-ducal governor, also called the “sovereign”. The Derzhavetz was the chief manager. collector of taxes from gospodar lands in his area. was also the military head of the district, responsible for mobilization in case of war, and the local judge in the Gospodar lands. These governors were given the right to keep a portion of the collected taxes and court fees - a method of remuneration that corresponded to the "feeding" system in Muscovy.
Outside the district of the rulers lay the lands of the nobility - the vast possessions of princes and lords and the smaller lands of the gentry. The nobles enjoyed the same legal rights in relation to the population of their possessions as the ruler in the hospodar lands entrusted to him. The gentry demanded for themselves similar power over their servants and farmers - the tenants of their lands.
It should be noted that in the second half of the 15th century, the Polish gentry managed to achieve the right to local self-government, as well as a number of other privileges. The expansion of the rights of the small landed nobility in Poland could not but speed up a similar process in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. During the war, each nobleman joined the army with his retinue, and the gentry of each region formed a separate regiment. For participation in hostilities, the minor nobles demanded the satisfaction of their political claims, and the Grand Duke and the council of nobles were gradually forced to give in to these demands. At the same time, however, they tried to establish political and military control over the provinces.
In the middle of the 16th century, a balanced system of governing regions and districts was established. A network of districts (povets) constituted the lower layer of the system. By 1566 total number there were thirty-one districts. The ruler of the district, the headman, was at the same time the “holder” (governor) of the ruler’s lands and the head general management area.
To conduct litigation over the land of the gentry, a special noble “zemsky court” was organized in each povet. The nobility of each povet, upon mobilization, constituted a separate military unit with its own banner. At the head was a special officer who was called the cornet of the regiment.
Areas that comprised more than high level local government were called voivodeships. Each voivodeship included from one to five povets. Each was headed by a governor or governor. In the end, the latter title was preferable. The voivode was the "holder" of the central region of the voivodeship, the head of the voivodeship's administration, the commander-in-chief of all armed forces mobilized within his voivodeship in the event of war, and the chief judge. His power extended to the population of the ruler's lands and to the small nobility, but not to the nobles.
In addition to the voivode, in many voivodeships there was the position of “commander of the castle (fortress),” called “castellan.”
The offices of voivode and castellan were established in 1413, at first only in Lithuania proper (not including Samogitia), which was divided on this occasion into two voivodeships, Vilno and Trokai. During the reign of Svidrigailo, the position of “marshal” of Volyn was established. The marshal exercised military leadership. In the 16th century, Volyn became an ordinary voivodeship. In 1471, when Kyiv lost its status as a principality, the post of governor of Kyiv was created. In 1504, the voivodeship was formed by Poloshcha land, and in 1508 by Smolensk (captured by the Muscovites in 1514). By 1565, thirteen voivodeships had been formed (not counting Smolensk, which at that time belonged to Moscow).
The ethnic composition of three voivodeships was predominantly Lithuanian: Vilno (five districts), Trokai (four districts) and Samogitia. The latter consisted of only one povet, and its head was called the headman, not the governor; however, his power was equal to that of a voivode. In all other voivodeships, Russians made up the bulk of the population. These are the following areas:
1. Novogrudok Voivodeship (Novgorod-Litovsk). It included three districts: Novogrudok (Novogorodok), Slonim Volkovysk.
2. Voivodeship Berestie (Brest), which consisted of two districts: Brest and Pinsk.
3. Voivodeship Podlaskie, three districts: Bielsk, Dorogiczyn and Melnik.
4. Minsk Voivodeship, two districts: Minsk and Rechitsa.
5. Mstislavl Voivodeship, one povet.
6. Polotsk Voivodeship, one povet.
7. Voivodeship of Vitebsk, two povets: Vitebsk and Orsha.
8. Kiev Voivodeship, two povets: Kyiv and Mozyr.
9. Volyn Voivodeship, three povets: Lutsk, Vladimir and Kremen.
10. Braslav Voivodeship, two povets: Braslav and Vinnitsa.
The borders of the Polotsk and Vitebsk voivodeships almost completely coincided with the borders of the former Russian principalities with the same names. Three other voivodships in the Russian part of the grand duchy (Kiev, Volyn, Minsk) also almost corresponded to the ancient Russian principalities.
Due to both ancient Russian traditions that still existed in most of the Western Russian lands, and the creation of a powerful administrative center in each voivodeship, the local government played a much more important role. important role in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania rather than in Muscovy. On the other hand, the central administration services were less developed than in Moscow.
The main connection between the central and local government of the grand duchy was provided by the aristocracy - the lords. It was they who occupied the most important positions at both the central and provincial levels and constituted the lords of the rada (government council), which not only gave advice to the Grand Duke, but actually led the country.
Legally, the Grand Duke was at the head of the Lithuanian-Russian state. According to tradition, he was chosen from the descendants of Gediminas, but there was no specific law on succession to the throne. After the unification of Lithuania and Poland in 1385, Vytautas, son of Keistut, led the Lithuanian opposition to his cousin, King Jogaila (son of Olgierd), and he managed to establish himself as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. After the death of Vytautas (1430), several princes from the house of Gediminas began to lay claim to the crown. Only after Jagiello's youngest son Casimir was proclaimed Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1440 was dynastic peace restored. In 1447, Casimir was elected King of Poland, while remaining at the same time Grand Duke of Lithuania. Thus, the descendants of Jagiello (the Jagiellons) managed to found a common Polish-Lithuanian dynasty. At first, only the personality of the ruler testified to the unification of Poland and Lithuania. Only during the Union of Lublin in 1569 did the connection between the two states become real.
The Grand Duke was not an autocrat even before the First Statute of Lithuania constitutionally limited his power in favor of a council of nobles. He could act independently only when it came to the possessions of the crown, but even in the management of the sovereign lands he was, in fact, dependent on officials, who, according to custom, were chosen from among the aristocracy. The Gospodarev lands were not in the personal possession of the Grand Duke, but belonged to the state in his person. But the great princes and members of their families also had personal, quite extensive lands.
The Grand Duke also had the right to collect taxes and fees himself of different nature. However, taxes intended for the needs of the army and collected from the entire territory of the grand duchy were established by the council of nobles, and later by the Diet. Taxes on the use of crown properties could be determined by the Grand Duke himself. In fact, they were usually also approved by individual members of the council of nobles, although not necessarily by the entire council.
The Grand Duke also enjoyed certain royal prerogatives ("regalia"), such as minting coins and trading in salt and alcohol. Exclusive right the trade in alcoholic beverages was known as the “right of propination.” The Grand Duke could dispose of his right to maintain inns and often sold it for a suitable fee to private individuals or gave it to those to whom he wanted to show favor. In this way, many members of the nobility could acquire this right. In Poland, the gentry received the exclusive right of propination (propinacja) based on the Statute of Piotrkow of 1496.
We can add to this that the purified alcoholic drink, now known throughout the world under the Russian name “vodka,” was first mentioned in the documents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the very beginning of the 16th century. It was called “burnt wine”, hence the Ukrainian word “gorelka” (vodka).
The Grand Duke was assisted by a number of state dignitaries, whose positions were established according to the Polish model and whose titles were mainly of Polish origin. Polish positions of this kind were initially associated with the prince's household (court positions, urzydy dworskie). During the 13th and 14th centuries they became positions in the royal administration.
The closest assistant to the Grand Duke was the land manager (marshalor zemsky). This official was responsible for maintaining etiquette at the court of the Grand Duke, as well as at meetings of the Sejm. In the absence of the Grand Duke at meetings of the council of nobles, the land manager was his authorized representative. His deputy was called the steward of the court. He stands at the head of the court servants (nobles). The remaining court positions were as follows: cupbearer, butcher, equerry, and so on.
More important were the positions of chancellor, land treasurer, his deputy - court treasurer, who was responsible for the treasury of the Grand Duke, commander-in-chief and his deputy - field commander. In wartime, the commander-in-chief had complete control over the army, especially during long campaigns.
None of these officials had political power; the course of affairs was determined by the council of nobles, and the influence of any of the highest dignitaries was based mainly on their membership in the council. Otherwise, they simply carried out the decisions of the council.
The council of nobles was finally established under Casimir and his sons. By this time, its composition had grown so large that “plenary” meetings of the council were convened only in in case of emergency or when the Sejm was in “session”.
At the “plenary” meetings of the council, seats in the front row were occupied by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Vilna, the voivode of Vilna, the voivode and castellan of Trokai and the headman of Samogitia. In the seats of the second row sat the Roman Catholic bishops of Lutsk, Brest, Samogitia and Kyiv; behind them sat the governor of Kyiv, the headman of Lutsk, the governors of Smolensk and Polotsk, the headman of Grodno and the governors of Novogrudok, Vitebsk and Podlasie. Higher dignitaries - such as marshals and hetmans - did not have places specially assigned to them, since usually the steward or hetman combined his position with the position of voivode or headman. The seats of junior court ranks were behind the second row.
In between the "plenary" meetings of the council, its inner circle, known as the highest or secret council, continued to operate on a permanent basis. The inner circle consisted of the Roman Catholic bishop of Vilna (and any other Catholic bishop if he was present at the council meeting), all the governors who were members of the council, the elders of Samogitia and Lutsk, two governors and the secretary of the treasury.
The Council of Nobles, especially its inner circle, was the main driving force of the government. The constitutional powers of the council were formulated in charters of 1492 and 1506. and finally formalized by the First Lithuanian Statute of 1529. According to the latter, the sovereign (sovereign) was obliged to preserve intact all previous laws and not to issue new laws without the knowledge of the council (Section III, Article 6).
Nobles played a prominent role in foreign affairs Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They represented the principality in its negotiations with Poland, as well as with the Moscow state.
In 1492 and 1493 Three Lithuanian nobles took an active part in preliminary negotiations regarding the proposed marriage of Ivan III's daughter Elena and Grand Duke Alexander of Lithuania: Jan Zaberezinsky, Stanislav Glebovich and Jan Khrebtovich. Each of them visited Moscow in turn. Zaberezinsky and Glebovich established friendly relations with the senior Moscow boyar, Prince Ivan Yuryevich Patrikeev (who, by the way, was a descendant of Gediminas) and some other Moscow boyars. When Princess Elena arrived in Lithuania, Vilna she was met by Prince Konstantin Ivanovich Ostrogsky and princes Ivan and Vasily Glinsky.
In November 1493, the Lithuanian “great embassy” was sent to conclude a peace treaty between Lithuania and Moscow. The embassy consisted of three nobles: Peter Ivanovich (who was the governor and land manager of Trokai), Stanislav Kezgail (the headman of Samogitia) and Vojtech Janovich. At the same time, the Lithuanian Council of Nobles sent a message to Prince Patrikeev, asking him to contribute to the establishment of friendly relations between the two states. The message was signed by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Lutsk and Brest, Jan, Peter Yanovich (member of the embassy), Prince Alexander Yurievich Golshansky (vicar of Grodno) and Stanislav Kezgayl (member of the embassy).
Attempts by the Lithuanian council of nobles to establish close relations between it and the Moscow boyar Duma were frustrated due to the disgrace of Prince Patrikeev in 1499; but even after this, the exchange of envoys between Lithuania and Moscow contributed to the establishment of personal contacts between the citizens of the two countries. Among the Lithuanian envoys who visited Moscow in the first half of the 16th century were Sapieha (in 1508), Kiszka (1533 and 1549), Glebovich (1537 and 1541), Tyshkevich (1555) and Volovich (1557). ). During his stay in Moscow in 1555, Yuri Tyshkevich, being Greek Orthodox, paid a visit to Metropolitan Macarius and asked for his blessing.
The Council of Nobles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania can be compared to the Polish Senate - the highest chamber of the Polish Sejm. The lower house of this Sejm was the house of representatives of the local nobility - izba poselska (embassy chamber).
Local assemblies of the Polish gentry took a different form in the second half of the 16th century. It was at these assemblies that the small nobility elected their deputies to the national diet.
Under Polish influence, the local nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also began to achieve both local government, and national representation. To achieve this, the small nobles took advantage of political or military circumstances in which the Grand Duke and the council of nobles especially needed their active help. First, for help in mobilizing the army for great war or support for the interests of the Grand Duchy in conflicts and negotiations with Poland, only representatives of the Lithuanian nobility were addressed. The first national diet of the grand duchy - in which not only representatives of Lithuania itself, but also the Russian regions took part - took place in 1492 after the death of Casimir to elect a new grand duke.
After this, representatives of the small nobility took part in the meetings of the Sejm whenever it was convened. The governors were given instructions to ensure the presence of two deputies from the gentry from each povet at the Sejm meetings. Local electoral diets of the szlachta (sejmiks) did not function regularly at that time. At first, deputies from the gentry were not elected, but were appointed by local or regional officials. Only during the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548–78) were the sejmiks of the small nobility officially recognized and given the right to elect “envoys” to the national diet. This right was granted by the Vilna Charter of 1565 and confirmed by the Second Lithuanian Statute (Section III, Articles 5 and 6).
What was the participation of Russians in the government and administration of the Lithuanian-Russian state? In view of the fact that most of the population of the Grand Duchy was Russian and that the Russian language was predominantly used both in the administration and in the courts, one would expect that Russians would constitute a majority in the government. In fact, this was not the case.
Among the factors that prevented Russian participation in governing the country was strong position occupied by the Roman Catholic Church. It should be remembered that it was proclaimed the state church of Lithuania under the terms of the first union with Poland. After this, the Lithuanian people were converted to Roman Catholicism. The first Catholic bishopric organized in Lithuania was Vilna. In 1417, another one was formed in Samogitia. Twelve years later, two Catholic bishops were appointed to Ukrainian lands - to Lutsk and Kyiv. Another Catholic bishopric was organized in Brest. Since the Ukrainian people at that time belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church, the establishment of Roman Catholic bishoprics in these lands actually mattered only for small groups of the population, mainly for Lithuanians and Poles living in Ukraine. However, this action marked the beginning of an ambitious program of Roman proselytism in Ukraine.
Under the terms of the Charter of 1434, the existence of the Greek Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy was recognized, and Orthodox believers were promised equality in rights with Catholics. The same promise was repeated by Casimir in 1447. Despite this, not a single Orthodox clergyman was ever admitted to the council of nobles. On the other hand, as noted above, all Catholic bishops were provided permanent places in the council.
As for the secular members of the council, there were both Russians and Lithuanians among them. In the middle of the 16th century, the Radziwills (Lithuanian family) enjoyed the greatest influence in deciding state affairs. However, some of the Russians, such as the princes Ostrog, Chodkiewicz and Volovich, played a prominent role in the council. The situation of those who held positions in the central and local administration was similar.
The charter issued in 1564 in Bielsk mentions the following Russian (or adhering to Russian traditions) dignitaries: Jan Hieronymovich Chodkiewicz, headman of Samogitia; Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky (son of Konstantin Ivanovich), governor of Kyiv and ruler of Volyn; Pavel Ivanovich Sapega, governor of Novogrudok; Prince Stepan Andreevich Zbarazhsky, governor of Vitebsk; and Ostafiy Volovich, manager of the court and secretary of the treasury. These people witnessed the sealing of the letter (grafted) with a seal. Other Russian witnesses included Grigory Aleksandrovich Khodkevich, Vasily Tyshkevich, Prince Alexander Fedorovich Czartoryski and Prince Andrei Ivanovich Vishnevetsky.
Despite high position occupied by some Russian dignitaries, they did not represent an organized group. There was no “Russian party” in the council of nobles. Most Russian nobles were loyal subjects of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, completely satisfied with their position in the government.
It seems that Russians showed greater national consciousness in regions such as Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kyiv and Volyn. In many cases, however, here, as in other regions of Lithuania, the difference in social and economic interests of the aristocracy and the landed nobility was reflected, which undermined the sense of ethnic community. At the Lublin Sejm (1569), it became obvious that the transition of Ukrainian regions from Lithuania to Poland was greatly facilitated by the dissatisfaction of the Ukrainian small nobility with their position.
In the Russian regions of the Grand Duchy, the nobility constituted a minority of the population; the majority were peasants. However, they had no voice in the government. Only the nobility enjoyed political influence.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Samogit and Russia (this is the full name of this power) formed in the 1240s. Initially it included the eastern part of modern Lithuania (Aukštaitija) and the so-called. “Black Rus'” (modern Western Belarus). Mindovg is considered its founder. By ethnic composition the population of the principality was Balto-Slavic with a predominance of the Slavic Orthodox element. Lithuanians constituted the ruling ethnic group. Moreover, they were pagans.
Because of this religious pluralism, the authorities of the young state immediately faced the question of the need religious reform. Perhaps around 1246 the issue of converting all of Lithuania to Orthodoxy was discussed. In any case, he was accepted by the son of Mindaugas, Voishelk. However, the Grand Duke made a different choice. In 1252/53 Mindovg received from the Pope royal title in exchange for adoption of Catholicism and the founding of a Catholic bishopric. He hoped that Rome would help Lithuania repel the aggression of the German knights. However, his hopes, like the plans of Daniil Galitsky in his time, were not destined to come true. The new allies helped mainly with prayers and appeals, but not with troops. Meanwhile, the knights were defeated by pagans from the Zhmud tribe. Therefore, in 1261 Mindovg renounced Christianity and accepted Zhmud into his principality.
The end of the life of the first Lithuanian ruler was rather absurd. He missed his deceased wife Martha very much. Another prince, Dovmont, had a wife who looked very similar to the late princess. Without thinking twice, Mindovg took his wife away from him. The offended Dovmont repaid his insulted honor. In 1263, a conspiracy arose led by princes Dovmont and Troinat. In a battle with the rebels, the presumptuous sovereign died.
Dovmont soon left Lithuania, and Troinat became the Grand Duke. But he was soon killed by the grooms of Mindaugas, avenging the death of their master. After a short strife, during which Pinsk and, possibly, Polotsk and Vitebsk became part of Lithuania, Voishelk Mindovgovich sat on the throne. He made a second attempt to baptize Lithuanians, now according to the Orthodox rite, and in 1265 he applied for this in Pskov. But there, in 1266, Dovmont, the murderer of his father, became prince. After that, Voishelk did not want to hear about any contacts with Russians who “welcome criminals.”
A sharp expansion of the territory of Lithuania occurred under the Grand Duke Gediminas (1316-1341). He annexed the Smolensk, Minsk, Kyiv, Brest lands and in 1339 entered into a direct military conflict with the Horde, thereby leading the Eastern European anti-Tatar national liberation movement.
The clash occurred due to the transition of Smolensk to Lithuanian rule. Khan Uzbek responded by sending a punitive detachment of Tavkubey-Murza to Smolensk, which included the regiments of the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. Thus, this event marked the beginning of open confrontation between Moscow and Lithuania over disputed territories in Eastern Europe. With the help of Lithuanian squads, the blow was repelled, and from that moment on, Smolensk no longer paid tribute to the Horde.
Gediminas in 1324 made another attempt to Catholicize the country, but the Orthodox population opposed it, and the project was rejected. But territorial growth is proceeding at a rapid pace: around 1325, Brest was annexed. An intensive attack on Volyn began. In the 1320-30s. Lithuanian troops subjugated part of the Kyiv lands.
Before his death, Gediminas divided his possessions among his seven sons. It seemed that Lithuania was on the verge of feudal fragmentation. But the country did not fall apart. After a short strife, during which the new Grand Duke Yavnut was killed by his brothers, he came to the throne in 1345. Olgerd ascended, and Keistut became his co-ruler. The two of them ruled the Lithuanian state for many years.
Olgierd and Keistut became the rulers of Lithuania at a difficult time. In 1345-48. she was continuously attacked by German knights. In 1348 on the river. Strava, the Russian-Lithuanian army was defeated, their brother Narimunt died. Poland was advancing from the west: in 1349 its troops occupied Galicia and Brest. In 1350 Moscow captured Smolensk.
Olgierd managed to stabilize the situation with quick and decisive actions. In 1352, he simply officially renounced the territories captured by the Poles, thereby temporarily curbing the appetites of his western neighbor. The Lithuanians stopped the knightly onslaught with stubborn resistance. An anti-Moscow alliance was concluded with the Tver Principality, an old enemy of the Kalitichs. Thus, Lithuania found a powerful ally in the east.
In 1358 Olgerd and Keistut proclaimed unification program under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Samogit and Russia all Baltic and East Slavic lands. During their reign, Lithuania experienced rapid territorial growth. In the 1350s, it captured cities between the Dnieper, Berezina and Sozh rivers. By 1362, Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Bryansk, and Seversky lands were finally subjugated (the process of their annexation began in the 1330s).
At the same time, the Lithuanians emerged victorious from conflicts with other contenders for dominance in Eastern Europe. In 1362 V Battle of Blue Waters Olgerd's regiments inflicted a crushing defeat on the Horde (this battle is considered similar in scale to the Battle of Kulikovo). In 1368, 1370 and 1372 with the support of the allied Tver, the Grand Duke of Lithuania attacks Moscow three times. But she survived. Only as a sign that “he was here”, Olgierd drove up and broke his spear against the Kremlin wall.
The growing influence of Lithuania among European states is evidenced by the fact that Western countries are beginning to seek an alliance with it. Polish King Casimir IV, Pope Clement VII and Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV vied with each other to propose converting to Catholicism. Proud Olgerd replied that he agreed, but on one condition. Let the Teutonic Order leave the Baltic states and settle in the steppes between Lithuania and the Horde, becoming a human shield against invasions from the East. Naturally, this was a deliberately impossible requirement.
Olgerd tried to challenge Moscow's church leadership in the Orthodox world. Officially, the head of the Russian church was still called the Metropolitan of Kyiv, but his residence moved first to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, and after 1326 to Moscow. Since the overwhelming majority of the lands of the former Kievan Rus professed Orthodoxy, it turned out that politically they were subordinate to Lithuania, and religiously they were subordinate to Moscow.
Olgerd saw here a threat to the unity of his state. In 1352, the Byzantine patriarch was asked to approve the Lithuanian candidate for the Kiev metropolitan table - Theodoret. Constantinople did not recognize Theodoret. But Olgerd achieved approval of his project from the Bulgarian Patriarch. Seeing that the situation was fraught with a split in Orthodox Christianity, Byzantium backed down. A compromise decision was made: Alexy, who was sitting in Moscow, was appointed Metropolitan of Kyiv. But a special Lithuanian metropolitanate was established in Novogrudok, to which the Polotsk, Turov and Galicia-Volyn lands were subordinate.
After the death of Olgerd in 1377, the throne was taken by his son, Prince Jagiello 1 - the man who was destined radically change the path of development of Lithuanian statehood. He was distinguished by extremely inconsistent policies. At first, Jagiello abandoned the traditional anti-Horde orientation for Lithuania. He entered into an alliance with Mamai and even promised to take part in a punitive campaign against Rus' and on the Kulikovo Field to stab Dmitry Donskoy in the back. But the Lithuanian squads did not reach the battlefield. The triumph of Moscow on the Kulikovo Field forced Jagiello to seek the friendship of Prince Dmitry, and a project arose for Jagiello’s baptism into Orthodoxy and his marriage to one of the daughters of the Moscow ruler. But in 1382 Moscow was burned by Tokhtamysh, and Jagiello was again disappointed in his plans.
In 1385, Lithuania sharply changed its orientation towards Poland. In the town Krevo signs union - union of the Lithuanian and Polish crowns. Now the two countries had one ruler, bearing the title of “King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania.” Jagiello was baptized according to the Catholic rite, took the name Vladislav and became the founder of the Jagiellonian dynasty. He married the Polish queen Jadwiga and from 1387 began an intensive Catholicization of his principality.
Thus, there was a rapprochement between Orthodox Lithuania and the Catholic West. She finds herself drawn into the orbit of the political life of Poland, the Holy Roman Empire, the Vatican, and France. Its political and social system is becoming more and more similar to the Polish one. This radically changed the direction of development of this state and its place on the Eastern European map.
The formation of Lithuanian statehood in its new status was not easy. In 1390-92. Prince Vitovt starts a rebellion. He sought to separate Lithuania from Poland and, in alliance with the Teutonic Order, inflicted a number of sensitive blows on Jogaila’s troops. Finally, in 1392, an agreement was reached between Jagiello-Vladislav and Vytautas. The Polish king retained nominal power over the entire Polish-Lithuanian federation, and Vytautas became the actual Lithuanian prince. The beginning of his reign was successful: in 1395 he returned Smolensk, in 1397 he defeated the Horde, and for the first time on its territory - in the Volga region!
However, in 1399 R. Vorskla The Tatar army of Timur-Kutluk destroyed the army of Vytautas. After this, he was forced to somewhat humble his ambitions and in 1401 confirm the union with Poland. Gradually, the prince began to regain his position, having been shaken after the “massacre on Vorskla”: in 1401 he suppressed the anti-Lithuanian rebellion in Smolensk led by Yuri Svyatoslavich, and in 1410 under Grunwald inflicted a crushing defeat on the Teutonic Order. The flower of German chivalry died in the battle.
In 1426, Vitovt imposed tribute on Pskov. In 1427, he undertook a grandiose demonstration campaign along the eastern border of Lithuania. The princes of Pereyaslavl, Ryazan, Pronsk, Vorotynsk, Odoev greeted him magnificently and presented him with large gifts. In 1428, Vitovt besieged Novgorod and took a huge ransom of 11 thousand rubles from it.
The rise of Vytautas against the background of the rather faceless Jogaila drew the attention of European monarchs to the Lithuanian ruler. In 1430, the Holy Roman Empire, making plans to create an anti-Polish alliance from Lithuania, Hungary, the German principalities and the Teutonic Order, offered Vytautas a royal crown. The prince at first refused. But then he learned that the Polish gentry were actively protesting against this proposal, arguing that Lithuania should depend on Poland, and not vice versa. Then, in spite of the “proud Poles,” Vitovt decided on a coronation. But he was not destined to wear the royal crown: on October 27, 1430, he died, sincerely mourned by the inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the first settlements to the final annexation to Russian Empire
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is a medieval feudal state in Eastern Europe. During the years of its prosperity, the state extended from Baltic Sea to Cherny. The principality for its time was one of the most developed in Europe.
From the first tribes to Mindaugas
The first people settled this Baltic region between 10,000 and 9,000 BC. Their main occupation was cattle breeding, farming and hunting. In the 9th-12th centuries AD, the decomposition of the primitive communal system began. The first mentions of Lithuania in German sources date back to the beginning of the 11th century. In Rus', the principality became known from the middle of the same century. Starting from this period, Lithuania organized raids on the border Russian principalities. Proof of the existence of early feudal relations can be seen in the agreement between the Galicia-Volyn principality and the nearby lands of local princes. After this, Prince Mindovg appears on the historical arena of Lithuania...
Board of Mindovg
Most of Mindaugas's reign was filled with struggles with the Teutonic Order and Papal power. In 1236, the Battle of the Saule River took place during which the Teutons were overthrown and fled; this victory allowed him to concentrate on unifying the Lithuanian lands and further expansion into Rus'. Around 1240, he was officially elected Prince of Lithuania and took the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania. At the same time, he annexed Western Belarus. The conclusion of peace with the Pope in 1251 allowed the newly created prince to strengthen the position of his state. Soon after this, peace was concluded with Daniil of Galicia, but soon his principality was captured by the Horde khans, and he was forced to attack his son-in-law. This was the reason for Mindaugas to begin the conquest of the southwestern principalities of Rus'.
In 1260, the Battle of Lake Durbe took place; it was caused by disagreements between the Germans and Lithuanians over the northwestern principalities; in addition, the crusaders still considered the Lithuanians pagans and could not come to terms with their position under catholic church. The battle was won by the Prussians and Lithuanians. The Order suffered heavy losses and was forced to capitulate indefinitely. The victory allowed Mindaugus to break the peace with the Pope and begin fighting against Polish Catholics.
In 1263, Mindaugas was killed by conspirators; there are many opinions about the reasons for the murder.
Period of civil strife and short-term reigns
After the death of the Great Mindvog, a conflict for the throne began. First, Troinat overthrew Tovtivil, after Troinat himself, Mindvog’s son Voishelk overthrew. Before his death, he handed over the throne to Andrei Shvarn, who soon died. After him there was Troyden, he pursued the same policy as Mindvog. He was killed by Dovmont. The penultimate decade of the 13th century is poorly covered in the sources; it is only known that certain Butigade and Budivid ruled.
Viten and Gediminas
In 1292, Viten reigned in the principality. He also pursued a policy of aggression against the Teutons. His name is associated with the liberation of Polotsk and its subsequent annexation to the Principality of Lithuania. After him, Gediminas ruled for 23 years; his relationship with Viten is questioned by a large number of historians. His entire reign passed under the banner of annexing Russian lands to his principality. The liberal policy of the Lithuanians largely helped them in seizing land; they did not impose their customs and put up with foreign religions. He pursued a policy against the strengthening of Moscow, for this he made peace with Catholics, Teutons, supported Tver and Novgorod and began to introduce Catholicism. In 1323, Grand Duke Gediminas annexed Volhynia, and took the city of Kyiv as his vassal. In 1331, the Battle of Plovtsy took place against the crusaders, who still did not recognize the “Lithuanian pagans,” in which the Principality of Lithuania won. The battle of Velyuon was fatal for Gediminas. In it he lost his life. His reign strengthened
grand-ducal power and strengthened the position of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Europe.
The dualistic rule of Olgerd and Keistut
After the death of Gediminas, the principality was on the verge of collapse, since there was no of a certain order succession to the throne. Olgerd and Keistut were the most influential of the seven sons of Gediminas; back in 1341 and 1342, they together defeated the crusaders and the Horde, and in 1345 they removed Eunutius from the grand princely throne. The two brothers divided the country into spheres of influence, Olgerd got Rus' and the Horde, and Keistut got the fight against the Teutons. In 1346 Olgerd plundered the nearby Novgorod lands. In 1349, he participated in the Smolensk-Moscow conflict on the side of Smolensk, but the Moscow prince was able to enlist the support of the Khan of the Horde and threaten Smolensk with plunder, he in turn was forced to retreat, and soon Olgerd himself seized Rzhev from his former ally. After the death of the Prince of Moscow, the Principality of Lithuania continued to seize Russian lands. Beginning in 1362, the lands of the principality expanded to the south, due to the weakening of the Horde; huge steppe territories to the Caspian Sea were annexed to Lithuania. In addition, Grand Duke Olgerd occupied Kyiv without a fight and opened the road to Moscow, and in 1370 and 72 he even made campaigns against it, but both times peace treaties were signed. At the end of his life, Olgerd did not interfere in the politics of other countries and took a position of neutrality. During the entire period of dual control, his brother did not participate in any major conflicts, but during the reign of Jagiello he did important step which ended in failure...
Jogaila, Vytautas and Poland
In 1377 Olgerd dies. His successor is his son Jagiello, who, like other Grand Dukes, continued his anti-Moscow policy. At the beginning of his reign, he pursued a policy of rapprochement with the Teutonic Order; Keistut did not like his actions, who overthrew him in 1381, but a year later a reverse shift occurred. Keistut was tortured to death in prison, and his son Vitovt managed to escape. He asked for help Livonian Order, because of this, civil strife began, and in 1384 the brothers made peace and jointly attacked the Livonians, such an offensive ended successfully, the Kovno fortress was taken. In 1385, the Union of Krevo was signed, according to which Poland and Lithuania united under the rule of the Grand Duke of Lithuania; such rapprochement was caused by the fragmentation of Poland and the need to save it. The forceful spread of Catholicism in Lithuania began, this did not suit Vytautas and the Orthodox population. In the new state it began again Civil War. However, it did not last long, for Jagiello was aware of the precariousness of his throne. According to the agreement of 1401, Vytautas was recognized as the Grand Duke of Lithuania for life without transferring the throne to anyone. The war was still going on on two fronts: on one the Teutons, and on the other the Russians. In 1406 there was a stand on the Ugra River, after which a "conclusion" was concluded between Russia and Lithuania. eternal peace"And in 1410, the Battle of Grunwald took place, during which Polish-Lithuanian troops inflicted a crushing defeat on the Teutonic Order. During this period, Lithuania reached the peak of its power.
Lithuania after Vytautas
Vytautas died in 1430. After this, a series of small political conflicts began. At first, Svidrigail was chosen as prince, but the alliance of Jagiello and Sigismund overthrew him, and Sigismund became the Lithuanian ruler, his reign lasted until 1440, he was killed by the conspirators. After him, Casimir became prince, who in 1449 signed an agreement with Vasily II on the division of spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. Since 1480, the Russian-Lithuanian wars began, during which Lithuania lost 40% of its territories. In 1492 Casimir dies. The following rulers pursued a policy of unification with Poland, Prince Sigismund expanded the rights of the Polish gentry to Lithuanian lands.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
In 1569, the Union of Lublin was signed, according to which Poland and Lithuania became a single state- By the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the ruler of the country was elected by a general diet consisting of both the Polish and Lithuanian elites. The common Polish-Lithuanian state declined in the early 18th century. From that moment on, it became a protectorate of the Russian Empire, and during the last partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795), the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ceased to exist.