The low level of labor productivity in Russian companies in various industries today causes heated discussions among many interested parties: owners and managers of enterprises, investors, government officials, and the expert community. In its most general form, productivity characterizes the ability of a resource to produce a product (that is, to be transformed into benefits useful to humans). Under the planned economic system in Russia, the indicator of labor productivity was very actively used. It was one of the central guidelines for the development of the economy as a whole, individual industries and enterprises. Today the situation is exactly the opposite. The latest data from Rosstat in July 2010 ends in 2005, and in operational mode this indicator is not calculated at all and is not controlled at the state level, replacing it with the notorious GDP.
Problems associated with changing the economic system, the abolition of planning and statistical reporting on labor productivity:
The introduction of the System of National Accounts (SNA) changed the methodology for accounting for labor inputs and labor results at the macro level.
At the enterprise level they began to use various methods calculating production volumes, labor costs and labor productivity indicators, which made their reducibility impossible.
The structure of employment has changed (assessment of the results and costs of labor of IT workers, programmers, engineers within innovative projects, marketers, logisticians, etc.).
Ignoring time sheets at many enterprises does not allow estimating labor costs.
Intangible assets, the use of human and intellectual capital, which increasingly influence labor productivity, do not have reliable assessment methods.
From time to time, more or less independent rating agencies or research companies publish the results of studies of labor productivity in Russian companies. The conclusions that can be drawn from these results are the most disappointing - according to various estimates, labor productivity in Russian companies is only 10% - 15% of the same indicator in foreign companies.
Figure 3. Labor productivity in the economies of countries 4
Figure 3 shows the general situation with labor productivity in the economies of the countries. As you can see, labor productivity in Russia is three times less than in the United States.
In the sectoral context, the lag is sometimes even more critical: in communications, transport, electrical equipment production, mechanical engineering and the pulp and paper industry, the share of labor productivity in the Russian Federation does not reach even 10% of labor productivity in the United States. A very relative leader on this list is the mining industry.
Table 3 presents data on labor productivity of the largest Russian and foreign corporations for a specific analytical period.
Table 3
Labor productivity in the largest
Russian and foreign corporations based on the results of 2007
|
Russian company |
Comparable foreign company |
||||
|
billion dollars |
number, |
t. dollars/person |
billion dollars |
number, |
t. dollars/person |
|
Retail group | |||||
|
Wimm-Bill-Dann | |||||
|
Uralkali | |||||
|
Severstal | |||||
|
RusHydro | |||||
|
Aeroflot | |||||
Recently, discussions regarding methods for measuring labor productivity have intensified. There is a point of view according to which it is incorrect to compare labor productivity in Russian and foreign companies using the cost method due to the fact that the capacity of national consumer markets in monetary terms is different. But when using the natural method of measuring labor productivity in some industries, the situation is even worse. In 2009, there were 7.3 cars per Avtovaz employee, while General Motors had 34.1. Each Severstal employee produced 209 tons of steel per year, while Arcelor Mittal produced 327 tons. Rosneft had 5,225 barrels of oil equivalent per year per employee, while British Petroleum had 15,217 barrels. Where Russian companies are not inferior to their foreign counterparts is in the tobacco and beer industries: per Baltika employee there were 356 thousand liters of beer, while Anheuser-Busch InBev had 168 thousand liters.
According to McKinsey Global Institute experts, the main reason holding back the growth of labor productivity in Russia until 2000 was the inequality of market participants and the lack of fair competition. But, summarizing the opinion of a large number of experts regarding the same reasons at the present time, we received the following consensus assessment:
Lack of flexibility in the personnel structure relative to the organization structure. There are facts indicating that the average hourly output of workers in the main specialties of Russian companies is quite comparable compared to a similar indicator in foreign companies. At the same time, the overall labor productivity at the same Russian enterprises significantly lower. With the improvement of the organizational structure of management, the number of administrative and managerial personnel remains the same with a general reduction in the number of personnel. In the process of restructuring large corporations, this circumstance becomes even more acute.
Uncontrollability of processes (labor processes, business processes). With high-quality planning of processes, there is practically no operational resource management - the proportion of downtime associated with waiting for materials, repair services, transport, etc. is very high. Poor combination of operations and functions is a consequence of the lack of interest among performers in improving processes.
Lack of organizational, self-organizational and operational planning skills among lower-level managers. This relates to all the activities of managers, ranging from inaccurate resource planning to the inability to self-discipline (start and finish work on time).
Problems of employee training. Improving processes in this area in Russian companies were suspended at the end of 2008 - 2009 due to well-known events. This indicates that personnel development is still not a priority in our companies and is financed on a residual basis.
Hard public policy in the area of staff reductions. Optimizing headcount at many enterprises is the most problematic process during reorganization measures in Russian organizations. Anti-crisis measures government controlled in the Russian Federation in 2009–2010 led to the fact that, with a general drop in GDP of 7–8%, unemployment grew, according to official data, by only 3.9%. Accordingly, the drop in labor productivity was 5–6%.
Lack of established effective accounting and reporting practices. Large Russian companies are required to submit reports in accordance with IFRS and RAS. Also, the intra-company management accounting system is in a transitional stage: the transition to ERP systems is associated with double accounting (according to the old and new systems). In this regard, instead of optimizing work processes, specialists have to duplicate similar operations in different systems.
Thus, the conclusions recognized by the majority of representatives of the expert community, without exception, lie in the organizational and managerial plane.
The comparative method is one of the most common in various sciences. In many areas of human activity there is a need optimal choice. In this case, all characteristics of the objects under study are taken into account, as well as their comparison according to the necessary criteria.
Comparison as a way of knowing
Comparison is one of the main methods of understanding the surrounding reality. The basis of this method is quite simple: identifying and comparing individual phenomena of a social, economic, political or other nature in order to detect distinctive similarities and differences.
Based on the comparison, a conclusion of a justified or conjectural nature is made about the homogeneity of phenomena, the similarity of their content, general orientation, etc. This allows the use of data about one object when studying another. If, during the course of the study, some discrepancies were discovered, this allows us to indicate the peculiarity, specificity and uniqueness of one phenomenon or object in relation to another.
Concept and categories of comparative analysis method
The method of comparative analysis originates from such a general scientific method as analogy. However, unlike the latter, comparison involves the use of elements of other methods, including analysis, methods of thinking, modeling, synthesis, induction, deduction, etc. The main purpose of comparison is to obtain new facts not only from the various properties of the objects or phenomena being compared, but also analysis their various relationships. Based on this, it is possible to draw up a general trend for their subsequent functioning and development.
The methods of the comparative approach lead to the fact that already established views on certain phenomena and facts can be revised. The comparison can also reveal features that are specific to a particular object or phenomenon, but were previously not known to researchers. Thus, comparison contributes to a deeper study and knowledge of objects and phenomena, as well as the search for them distinctive features and differences at different levels of research.
Benchmarking mechanism
The comparative research method has its own mechanism, which includes the following components:
- General scientific methods. These include: analogy, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc.
- Logical apparatus. An extensive system of categories that is used in comparison and analysis operations. Each object or phenomenon has its own system of categories.
A variation of the comparison method such as segmentation also deserves special attention. Its essence is that information about an object or phenomenon is divided into separate parts - segments, which are subsequently subjected to research. In this case, comparison can be made according to different criteria, in particular, is quite often used historically comparative method, where an object is studied not only in comparison with other objects, but also in comparison with itself at different time stages.
Segmentation as one of the methods of comparative analysis involves studying not only the characteristics of individual elements of a particular object or phenomenon, but also the nature and tendency of its functioning and development within the framework of the whole.
Stages of comparative analysis and forecasting
The comparative method of assessing objects and phenomena provides for the implementation of research at several levels:
- Collection and processing of all received information. Moreover, all data must be objective, accurate and provable.
- Systematization of information. All data must be distributed to different categories and give collected material structural view.
- Interpretation of the received data. Based on the analysis and comparison of information, specific conclusions are drawn.
At correct execution At these stages, the researcher can formulate justifications for the forecast. The most in a simple way forecasting is the direct comparison of information about an object or phenomenon at different levels, for example in different regions, countries, etc. The second method of forecasting involves putting forward specific hypotheses supported by real facts.
Rules for carrying out comparative analysis
The comparative research method will be effective only if all the rules for its implementation are followed:
- Carrying out comparisons at different levels using analogy, system-historical analysis and logic.
- Correct selection of objects for the comparison process.
- Specific goal setting.
- The comparative analysis method must be carried out using specific criteria.
- Clear definition of the characteristics of compared objects and phenomena.
- Processing of comparison results and analysis of the possibility of their application in practice.
All data obtained during the research process must be clear, unambiguous and provable.
Types of comparative studies
The comparative method has its own typology. In science they distinguish the following types research:
- According to the scope of the study: macro and micro comparison.
- According to the goals, practical (or functional) and theoretical (or scientific) research are distinguished.
- According to the level, research can be intersystem, intrasystem, intranational, historical, intersectoral, etc.
In addition, synchronous and asynchronous comparison are also distinguished. In the first case, we are talking about parallel and simultaneous comparison, and in the second case, the comparative method can be applied to objects that are located in different time periods.
Pros and cons of the comparative method
The comparative approach has a number of pros and cons that the researcher must take into account in his work. Concerning positive aspects, then they are as follows:
- The method allows you to reflect the current and real situation in relation to the object or phenomenon under study.
- All data are statistically substantiated.
- During the research process, adjustments can be made to the phenomena or objects being compared.
- Given a large amount of information, the method is very easy to implement and produces reliable and reliable results.
The method also has its disadvantages:
- Data may be out of date at the time study results are interpreted.
- The accuracy of the data obtained depends on the stability of the object being studied.
- For reliable and accurate data you need a large number of information.
The ratio of positive and negative aspects method determines the effectiveness of its application in each specific case.
Examples of using the comparative analysis method
Features of the comparison method allow it to be used in the most different areas, such as:
- Biology and anatomy.
- Linguistics, in particular comparative linguistics.
- Literary studies and mythology.
- Comparative Politics.
- Economic Sciences.
- Jurisprudence and jurisprudence.
- Psychology.
- Sociological Sciences.
- Religious Studies.
- Philosophy, etc.
The comparative method has a number of features that allow it to be used effectively in a variety of sciences. The method has its own classification, typology, as well as rules and features of research at different stages. The choice of this method is determined by the availability required quantity information and selection of optimal criteria.
Comparative analysis (interplant)
in the USSR, comparison of indicators economic efficiency the work of individual (usually related) enterprises and production associations for the purpose of objective assessment of the results of their activities. S. (m.) a. allows you to assess the intensity of planned tasks, the results of socialist competition, identify production reserves, and contributes to the dissemination of best practices. Interplant comparisons assume comparability of objects and their performance indicators. It is achieved by eliminating incomparable values, adjusting indicators using correction factors, recalculating indicators according to the methodology for their calculation at other enterprises, etc. Basic conditions for comparability: compliance with the qualitative homogeneity of the compared indicators, the unity of the methodology for their calculation; the use of uniform product meters, the same geographical conditions and location in relation to suppliers of materials and equipment and consumers finished products ; the same number of working days in the compared periods, etc. If some of the listed factors differ at the compared enterprises, the indicators characterizing them are recalculated to the level of identical conditions. Organization S. (m.) a. comes down to next stages : selection of comparison objects; determining the degree of comparability of objects and compared indicators; collection and processing of economic information about objects, bringing indicators into a comparable form; comparison and analysis of indicators, assessment of achieved results, identification of the reasons for discrepancies in them and the factors that determined the value of indicators; generalizing the results of the analysis, developing conclusions and proposals to improve production efficiency, calculating the effectiveness of the implementation of proposals. Methodology S. (m.) a. includes the entire arsenal of methods and techniques economic analysis (see Analysis of economic activities), but special meaning have a scientifically based grouping of enterprises and a choice of comparison base. If the task of the analysis is to determine the best enterprise, then a set of indicators is selected as a basis for comparison, the analysis of which allows a comprehensive study of the results of the work of the compared enterprises. The general algorithm of the mathematical method of comparative comprehensive assessment of work based on a set of indicators comes down to the following. The source data is presented in the form of a matrix, the element of which a ij is the value of the indicator j serial number i. The table of source data determines the maximum elements - indicators in each column. All elements of a column are divided by the maximum element. The result is a “coordinate matrix”. All its elements are squared and summed up in rows (if the problem is solved taking into account the different weights of the indicators, then each term is included in the total sum multiplied by the value of the corresponding weighting coefficient). The amounts received are arranged in descending order: the company with the largest amount is in first place. Lit.: Kremke K., Interplant comparative analysis in socialist industry as a method of revealing and using production reserves, M., 1965; Vershinin A. M., Comparative analysis economic activity industrial enterprises, M.. 1970; Vorobeychikov A.P., Kaufman M.Z., Interplant economic analysis, M., 1971; Sheremet A.D., Comprehensive economic analysis of enterprise activity, M., 1974; Course of analysis of economic activity, ed. S.K. Tatura and A.D. Sheremeta, M., 1974. A. D. Sheremet.
Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what “Comparative analysis” is in other dictionaries:
comparative analysis- lyginamoji analizė statusas T sritis automatika atitikmenys: engl. comparative analysis; comparative study vok. Analyze mit Vergleichswerten, f rus. comparative analysis, m pranc. analyze comparative, f … Automatikos terminų žodynas
Comparative analysis- a scientific method of understanding reality, a research strategy, according to which the study of the patterns of mental activity is carried out by comparing qualitatively special stages of its development...
This article may contain original research. Add links to sources, otherwise it may be set for deletion. additional information may be on the talk page. (May 25, 2011) ... Wikipedia
comparative analysis of documentation- One of the methods for processing empirical data. It is carried out with the aim of drawing up a general approximate picture of the labor process, its organization, the efficiency of its flow, the composition of workers and the impact of work on their health... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
comparative analysis of the results of direct observation.- One of the methods for processing empirical data. It is carried out to compile a qualitative description of individual elements of the labor process and to identify elements that are subject to indirect observation... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
Comparative analysis of static equilibrium- COMPARATIVE STATIC EQUILIBRIUM ANALYSIS A method of economic analysis that can compare the differences between two or more equilibrium states resulting from changes in exogenous quantities. Consider, for example... Dictionary-reference book on economics
Comparative performance analysis- (COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTION) comparison of a given portfolio with other portfolios or market indices in order to determine the reasons for differences in returns ... Financial glossary
- 'THE FORMATION OF THE THEORY OF NONLINEAR DYNAMICS IN MODERN CULTURE. Comparative analysis of synergetic and postmodern paradigms’ monograph by M.A. Mozheiko (Minsk, BSEU, 1999), dedicated to identifying the cultural status of the phenomenon of postmodernism in... ...
A method of estimating value by comparing recent sales of comparable properties with the subject property after making appropriate adjustments to account for differences between them. The method is effective for an active market where you can find similar... Financial Dictionary
Monograph by M.A. Mozheiko (Minsk, BSEU, 1999), dedicated to identifying the cultural status of the phenomenon of postmodernism in modern culture. The central hypothesis put forward in this work is the hypothesis that the process of concept formation... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia
Books
- Comparative analysis of the national identity of the USA and Russia, K. S. Gadzhiev. A comparative analysis of the American and Russian types of national identity, their most important components, defining directions, main milestones, features and historical...
The essence of this method is relatively simple: comparison of individual social phenomena, including political ones, in order to discover their similarities and differences. Based on the identified similarities, a presumptive or sufficiently substantiated conclusion is made, for example, about their social homogeneity, more or less similar content, the general direction of their development, etc. In this case, known data about one of the phenomena being compared can be used to study others. The differences in the phenomena under study revealed during the comparative analysis indicate their specificity and, possibly, the uniqueness of some of them.
From the above it follows that the method of comparative analysis is largely based on such a general scientific method as analogy. However, in a comparative analysis political phenomena Such general scientific methods of thinking and cognition as analysis and synthesis, modeling, induction, deduction, etc. are also used.
These methods correspond to category system , i.e. most general concepts, within the framework of which the mental procedures of comparative analysis are carried out: “comparison”, “similarity”, “difference”, “object of comparison”, “subject carrying out comparative analysis” (with his views, ideological attitudes and value orientations), “viewing angle” of the phenomena being compared, “whole”, “part”, “segmentation” (dividing the whole into separate segments for the purpose of research), “social homogeneity” of the phenomena under study, “method of comparison”, etc.
Basic meaning comparative analysis - obtaining new information not only about the properties of the phenomena being compared, but also about their direct and indirect relationships and, possibly, about the general trend of their functioning and development. As the French researchers M. Dogan and D. Pelassi rightly point out, “although comparison may initially be caused by a search for information, it is at the same time the key to knowledge. This is what makes it one of the most fruitful areas of thinking.”
Comparative analysis can lead to a critical revision of views researcher on certain socio-political phenomena that had previously emerged during his study of a particular country and which he was ready to consider universal, i.e. acceptable to many other countries. Comparative analysis can reveal specific features, characteristic of various countries, which were previously unknown to the researcher. The groundlessness of claims to the universality of his previous views, which are characterized by the concept of “ethnocentrism”, i.e. based on data from the study of one country, primarily our own.
So, a comparative analysis of political phenomena and processes contributes to a deeper knowledge of their common properties and differences, their development trends, as well as a more grounded critical assessment of the experience of one’s own country and other countries. This, in turn, raises the problem of learning the experience of these countries, expanding cooperation with them, including in the field political life society.
Benchmarking mechanism
Some components of the mechanism for comparative analysis of social, including political, phenomena have already been mentioned: general scientific methods of cognition (analogy, analysis, synthesis, etc.) and logical apparatus (primarily the system of categories used in logical operations comparative analysis, its inherent judgments and conclusions).
Let us now consider such a procedure for comparative analysis of political phenomena as segmentation– dividing the whole into segments and identifying those of them that will be subject to comparative analysis. For example, it is possible to identify such links in the political process in a particular society as the relations of the legislative branch, and conduct a comparative analysis of them. Or carry out a comparative analysis of the political rights and freedoms of citizens of different countries. In both cases, they stand out similar phenomena , which allows for a comparative analysis of them in more detail and depth.
The objects of comparative analysis can be both certain political processes in their most complete form, and their components, including subjects political processes – classes, political parties, political elites, etc., as well as those included in these processes political institutions.
Segmentation as a method of comparative analysis involves studying not only the structural properties of the political phenomenon being studied, but also the nature of its functioning within the whole (for example, a comparative analysis of the activities of various elites or political parties in different societies). It should be remembered that only by studying the functioning of any social, including political, phenomenon within the framework of the whole, can one obtain reliable knowledge about its real existence and role in society, because it always functions and manifests itself in the context of a particular society.
Important distinctive stages of comparative analysis are the processing of the obtained data, their systematization and scientific interpretation. In any case, it is necessary to show the validity of the political phenomena discovered in the comparative analysis of their similarities and differences , reveal their social nature, the immediate reasons for their appearance, as well as their social significance. In this case, based on a comparative analysis of political phenomena, useful practical conclusions can be formulated.
Comparative analysis can play a significant role in forecasting political processes. The simplest method of forecasting is a direct comparison of data on the development of these processes and the corresponding political institutions V different countries. It is argued, for example, that the model of American democracy is a model of the future of democracy in developed countries. European countries etc.
Another way of forecasting based on comparative analysis is extrapolation (distribution) of the obtained data into the future based on appropriate hypotheses.
It is argued (with good reason) that comparative forecasting is more reliable, “especially in the case of short-term forecasts,” and “remains one of the most promising approaches in the sociology of the future.” Let’s add on our own: “We’ll become political scientists too.”
This is one of the most common and universal methods research. The well-known aphorism “everything is known by comparison” - the best for that proof.
In the study comparison is called the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of reality. As a result of comparison, the commonality that is inherent in two or more objects is established, and the identification of commonality that is repeated in phenomena, as is known, is a step on the path to knowledge of the law.
The essence comparative analysis method relatively simple: comparison of individual properties of phenomena and processes in control systems in order to detect their similarities and differences.
For a comparison to be fruitful, it must satisfy two basic requirements.
1. Only such phenomena should be compared between which there can be a certain objective commonality. You can’t compare things that are obviously incomparable; it doesn’t give you anything. IN best case scenario here one can only come to superficial and therefore fruitless analogies.
2. Comparison should be made according to the most important characteristics. Comparison based on unimportant characteristics can easily lead to confusion.
Thus, formally comparing the work of enterprises producing the same type of product, one can find much in common in their activities. If at the same time a comparison according to such the most important parameters, such as production level, production cost, various conditions, in which the compared enterprises operate, it is easy to come to a methodological error leading to one-sided conclusions. If we take these parameters into account, it will become clear what the reason is and where the real sources of the methodological error lie. Such a comparison will already give a true idea of the phenomena under consideration, corresponding to the real state of affairs.
Various objects of interest to the researcher can be compared directly or indirectly - through comparing them with some third object. In the first case, qualitative results are usually obtained (more - less; lighter - darker; higher - lower, etc.). When objects are compared with some third object that acts as a standard, quantitative characteristics acquire special value, since they describe objects without regard to each other and provide deeper and more detailed knowledge about them.
Based on the identified similarities a presumptive or sufficiently substantiated conclusion is made, for example,
About them uniformity,
More or less similar content,
- general orientation their development, etc.
In this case, known data about one of the phenomena or processes being compared can be used to study others.
Identified during the comparative analysis differences of the studied phenomena and processes indicate their specifics and, perhaps, uniqueness some of them.
From the above it follows that the method of comparative analysis is largely based on such a general scientific method as analogy. At the same time, in the comparative analysis of social phenomena such general scientific methods of thinking and cognition as analysis and synthesis, modeling, induction, deduction, etc. are used.
These methods correspond to category system, those. the most general concepts within the framework of which mental procedures of comparative analysis are carried out:
- “comparison”, “similarity”, “difference”,
- “object of comparison”, “subject carrying out comparative analysis” (with his views, ideological attitudes and value orientations),
-“vision angle” of the compared phenomena”,
- “whole”, “part”,
- “segmentation” (dividing the whole into separate segments for the purpose of studying them),
- “homogeneity” and “heterogeneity” of the studied phenomena and processes,
- “comparison method”, etc.
Basic meaning comparative analysis - obtaining new information not only about properties compared phenomena and processes, but also about them direct and indirect relationships and perhaps about general trends their functioning and development.
As the French researchers M. Dogan and D. Ilassi rightly point out, “although comparison may initially be caused by the search for information, it is at the same time the key to cognition. This is what makes it one of the most fruitful directions of thinking” [Doğan M., Pelassi D. Comparative political sociology. - M.: RAS, 1994].
Benchmarking helps critical revision the researcher’s views on certain phenomena and processes that developed during his study of a particular control system and which he is ready to consider universal, i.e. acceptable for many other systems.
However, a comparative analysis will reveal specific features, characteristic of different systems controls that were previously unknown to the researcher, the groundlessness of claims to the universality of his previous views will become apparent.
So, a comparative analysis of various phenomena and processes of the management system contributes to a deeper knowledge of their common properties and differences, their development trends, as well as a more grounded critical assessment of the experience of one’s own country and other countries.
This, in turn, poses the problem of mastering the management experience of different countries and expanding cooperation with them in various spheres of public life.
What is it like benchmarking mechanism?
Some have already been mentioned earlier components mechanism for comparative analysis of control systems:
- general scientific methods cognition (analogy, analysis, synthesis, etc.) and
- logical apparatus(primarily the system of categories used in the logical operations of comparative analysis, its inherent judgments and inferences).
Let us now consider such a comparative analysis procedure as
- segmentation: dividing the whole into segments and highlighting those of them that will be subject to comparative analysis, while highlighting similar phenomena, which allows for their comparative analysis in more detail and depth.
Objects comparative analysis can become
- various subsystems and their elements;
- subjects these processes: social groups, individuals.
Segmentation as a method of comparative analysis involves studying not only structural properties the phenomenon being studied, but also the nature of its functioning within the whole(for example, a comparative analysis of the activities of various categories of management personnel).
Other important components (stages) of comparative analysis are
- processing of received data,
Their systematization and scientific interpretation, which includes simultaneously analysis and synthesis, searches for empirical evidence and formulation of concepts, and other logical operations.
In any case, it must be shown
-validity phenomena and their processes discovered in a comparative analysis similarities and differences,
Open them up nature,
Direct reasons for their appearance, as well as their
-social significance.
In this case, based on a comparative analysis, there can be
Useful practical implications.
Benchmarking can play a significant role in forecasting management processes.
The simplest method of forecasting is direct data comparison about the development of the processes being studied in different countries, at different enterprises. Another way of forecasting based on comparative analysis is extrapolation(distribution) of the obtained data for the future development of a particular process.
It has been argued (with good reason) that benchmarking forecasts have good reliability, especially for short-term forecasts, and remain one of the most promising approaches in control systems research.
Measurement
Measurement has historically developed from the operation of comparison, which is its basis. However, unlike comparison, measurement is a more powerful and universal cognitive tool.
Measurement - a set of actions performed using measuring instruments in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units of measurement.
Distinguish direct measurements(for example, measuring length with a graduated ruler) and indirect measurements, based on known dependence between the desired quantity and directly measured quantities.
The measurement assumes the presence of the following basic elements:
-object of measurement;
-units of measurement, i.e. reference object;
-measuring device(devices);
-measurement method;
-observer (researcher).
With direct measurement the result is obtained directly from the measurement process itself (for example, in sports competitions, measuring the length of a jump using a tape measure, measuring the length of carpets in a store, etc.).
With indirect measurement the desired quantity is determined mathematically on the basis of knowledge of other quantities obtained by direct measurement. For example, knowing the size and weight building bricks, you can measure the specific pressure (with appropriate calculations) that the brick must withstand during the construction of multi-story buildings.
Experiment
Experiment - the study of any phenomena by actively influencing them by creating new conditions that correspond to the goals of the study, or by changing the flow of the process in the right direction.
This is the most difficult and effective method empirical research. It involves the use of the simplest empirical methods- observations, comparisons and measurements. However, its essence is not in special complexity, “syntheticity,” but in the purposeful, deliberate transformation of the phenomena under study, in the intervention of the experimenter in accordance with his goals during natural processes.
It should be noted that the establishment of the experimental method in science is a long process that took place in the bitter struggle of advanced scientists of the New Age against ancient speculation and medieval scholasticism. (For example, the English materialist philosopher F. Bacon was one of the first to oppose experimentation in science, although he advocated experience.)
Advantages of experiment compared to observation:
1. During the experiment, it becomes possible to study this or that phenomenon in its “pure” form. This means that all kinds of “side” factors that obscure the main process can be eliminated, and the researcher receives accurate knowledge about the phenomenon of interest to us.
2. The experiment allows you to explore the properties of objects of reality in extreme conditions: at ultra-low and ultra-high temperatures; at the highest pressures; at enormous electric and magnetic field strengths, etc.
Working under these conditions can lead to the discovery of the most unexpected and amazing properties in ordinary things and thereby allows one to penetrate much deeper into their essence. An example of this kind of “strange” phenomena discovered under extreme conditions related to the control field is superconductivity.
3. The most important advantage of the experiment is its repeatability. During the experiment, the necessary observations, comparisons and measurements can be carried out, as a rule, as many times as necessary to obtain reliable data. This feature of the experimental method makes it very valuable in research.