Content
1. Introduction
1.1 Modern speech situation……………………….………………..…2
1.2 Language and speech………………………………………………….………………...3
1.2.1 Speech, its features………………………………………………………………. ..4
1.2.2 Subject and tasks of practical stylistics……………………...….5
1.2.3 Speech culture………………………………………………………......6
2. Accuracy and clarity of speech
2.1 Accuracy of word usage…………………….………………..……7
2.2 Stylistic assessment of dialectisms, jargons………………..…8
2.3 Stylistic assessment of borrowed words……………………….….9
2.4 Paronymous words and speech accuracy…………………………………….11
2.5 Accuracy of inflection and form formation……………………….13
2.6 Clarity of syntactic constructions………………………….……....14
3. Conclusion………………………...………………………………………………………....15
4. Literature…………………..……………………………………………………….16
Modern speech situation
Language is a powerful means of regulating people’s activities in various spheres, therefore, studying the speech behavior of a modern person, understanding how a person masters the richness of language, how affectively he uses it, is a very important and urgent task.
Every educated person must learn to evaluate speech behavior - his own and that of his interlocutors, and relate his speech actions to a specific communication situation.
Today, the speech of our contemporaries is attracting increasing attention from journalists, scientists of various specialties (linguists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists), writers, teachers, and it is becoming the subject of heated discussions among ordinary Russian speakers. Feeling speech problems, they try to answer the question of what is causing the state of speech culture that worries many. The eternal Russian questions “what to do?” and “who is to blame?” are quite natural in relation to the Russian language and Russian speech.
In the in-depth study “Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985-1995)” an attempt was made to highlight the most significant features of the Russian language of the end of the century. It notes:
“The events of the second half of the 80s - early 90s are similar to a revolution in their impact on society and language. The state of the Russian language of our time is determined by a number of factors.
1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is sharply expanding: new segments of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writing in newspapers and magazines. Since the late 80s, thousands of people with different levels of speech culture have had the opportunity to speak publicly.
2. In means mass media censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.
3. Personality in speech increases. Faceless and addressless speech is replaced by personal speech and acquires a specific addressee. The biological nature of communication, both oral and written, is increasing.
4. The sphere of spontaneous communication, not only personal, but also oral public, is expanding. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.
5. Important parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing: the possibility of the speaker directly addressing the listeners and feedback from the listeners to the speakers is created.
6. Situations and genres of communication are changing both in the field of public and personal communication. The rigid boundaries of official public communication are loosened. Many new genres of oral public speech are being born in the field of mass communication. The dry radio and TV announcer has been replaced by a presenter who thinks, jokes, and expresses his opinion.
7. Psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is sharply increasing.
8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of addresses to strangers.
9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, prohibited or rejected in the era of totalitarianism" (Russian language of the end of the 20th century. M., 1996).
Freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entail a loosening of language norms, an increase in linguistic variability (instead of one acceptable form linguistic unit different options turn out to be acceptable).
Language and speech
Linguists second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, overcoming the universalism and dogmatism of naturalists (Schleicher), they delved more and more into the study of individual linguistic facts and brought their research to the speech of an individual person. The successes of the new science - psychology - contributed to these aspirations - to bring research to the individual. These views, in their extreme manifestation, went as far as denying language as the property of the collective and calling into question the existence of languages.
Thus, A. A. Shakhmatov believed that “real existence has the language of each individual; the language of a village, city, region, people turns out to be a well-known scientific fiction, for it is composed of facts of language that are part of certain territorial or tribal units of individuals.” (Shakhmatov A. A. Essay on the modern Russian literary language, 4th ed. M., 1941. p. 59.)
Supporters of such views, according to the Russian proverb, “can’t see the forest for the trees.” W. Humboldt (1767-1835) wrote about this: “...in reality, language always develops only in society, and a person understands himself insofar as experience has established that his words are also understandable to others.” (Humboldt V. On the differences in the structure of human languages and its influence on the spiritual development of the human race, see: Zvegintsev V. A. History of linguistics of the 19th-20th centuries in essays and extracts. 3rd bridle. M., 1964. Part 1 . p. 97)
This thought in Marx’s formulation sounds as follows: language is “... existing for other people and only thereby existing also for myself” (Marx K. German Ideology // Marx K. and Engels F. Works 2 - ed. T. 3. P. 29.), and if language is always the property of a collective, then it cannot represent a mechanical sum of individual languages. Rather, the speech of each speaker can be considered as a manifestation of a given language in the conditions of one or another life situation. But individual characteristics in the speech of every person is also an indisputable fact.
This creates a very important problem: languages speech. These concepts are often confused, although it is clear that; for example, physiologists and psychologists deal only with speech, in pedagogy it is important to talk about the development and enrichment of students’ speech, in medicine - about speech defects, etc.; in all these cases, “speech” cannot be replaced by “language”, since we are talking about a psychophysiological process.
Speech, its features
If language is a system of signs and symbols, then speech is the process of using language. Speech is the realization of language, which reveals itself only through speech.
In linguistics, speech is understood as specific speaking, occurring over time and expressed in sound form (including internal pronunciation - inner speech) or written. Speech also includes the products of speaking in the form of a speech work (text), recorded in memory or writing. The differences between speech and language are as follows.
Firstly, speech is specific, unique, relevant, unfolds in time, and is realized in space. Let us remember the ability of some speakers, for example, Cuban leader F. Castro or Soviet President M. Gorbachev, to talk for hours. The collected works of many writers number dozens of volumes.
Secondly, speech is active, linear, and strives to combine words in the speech stream. Unlike language, it is less conservative, more dynamic, and mobile. Thus, with the announcement of openness and freedom of speech in our country, the manner of presenting information, especially about political leaders and social processes, has noticeably changed. If earlier messages were kept strictly in an official style, now rarely does anyone write about these processes and leaders without slight irony.
Third, speech, as a sequence of words involved, reflects experience talking man, determined by the context and situation, variable, can be spontaneous and disordered. We often come across examples of such speech in everyday life and at work.
Speech, on the one hand, using already known linguistic means, fundamentally depends on the language. At the same time, a number of characteristics of speech, such as tempo, duration, timbre, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, accent, are not directly related to language. Of particular interest is the use in speech of words that are not found in the language. To study and enrich the Russian language in linguistics, the following areas are identified and developed: “Stylistics of the Russian language” and “Culture of speech”.
Subject and tasks of practical stylistics
The term “practical stylistics” is found in V.V. Vinogradova, G.O. Vinokura, K.I. Bylinsky and other researchers of stylistic problems. It is also used in foreign science... Manuals are being created on the normative stylistics of national languages. Attempts are being made to define the concept of normativity, linguistic (and stylistic) norm.
The concept of norm is important for any literary language. Even in the artistic and fictional style, where the freedom of choice of linguistic means is widely used and the uniqueness of the writer’s individual manner is reflected, a complete departure from the national norm is impossible, because “the language is truly work of art cannot deviate far or significantly from the basis of the common native language, otherwise it will cease to be generally understood.”
In practical stylistics, where lexical and grammatical synonymy plays a huge role, the norm is “the set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) means of language for serving society, which develops as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic ) from among those coexisting, present, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in the Broad sense, assessment of these elements.”
The normative nature of practical stylistics brings it closer to that broad section (of philological science, which is called “culture of speech.” If we consider that, in addition to the objective historical study of the speech life of society in a certain era, the task of this philological discipline is to reveal the norms of the literary language in all "levels" of the language system and the establishment on a scientific basis of rules for using language, then we can talk about a direct connection between some problems of stylistics and problems of speech culture. So G. O. Vinokur wrote: "The task of stylistics... is to teach the members of a given social environment active and expedient handling of the linguistic canon, dissecting the linguistic tradition and such an attitude that would allow speakers to actively use all the elements contained within its broad framework, depending on the specific social and everyday situation, on the purpose that implies behind each given act of individual speaking "
Characteristics of the concept “Culture of speech”
The concept of speech culture is closely related to the literary language. The ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners, mastery of speech culture is a unique characteristic of professional suitability for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, managers, journalists.
Speech culture is important for everyone who, by the nature of their work, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, conducts business negotiations, educates, takes care of health, and provides various services to people.
What is speech culture?
Speech culture means mastery of the norms of the literary language in its oral and writing, in which the selection and organization of linguistic means are carried out, allowing, in a certain communication situation and subject to communication ethics, to ensure the necessary effect in achieving the set communication objectives.
Speech culture contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical.
Speech culture presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, i.e., compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speakers and writers) as an “ideal” or model. The linguistic norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important.
However, the culture of speech cannot be reduced to a list of prohibitions and definitions of “right and wrong.” The concept of “speech culture” is associated with the patterns and characteristics of the functioning of language, as well as with speech activity in all its diversity. It also includes the opportunity provided by the language system to find a new language form to express specific content in each real situation of speech communication.
Speech culture develops the skills of selecting and using linguistic means in the process of verbal communication, helps to form a conscious attitude towards their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. The choice of linguistic means necessary for a given goal is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. The famous philologist, major specialist in speech culture G. O. Vinokur wrote: “Every goal has its own means, this should be the slogan of a linguistically cultural society.”
Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, therefore it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech and take them into account in the process of speech interaction.
In accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of speech culture, native speakers must master the functional varieties of language, as well as focus on the pragmatic conditions of communication, which significantly influence the optimal choice and organization of speech means for a given case.
The ethical aspect of speech culture prescribes knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical standards of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; addressing “you” and “you”; choosing a full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.).
The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in a speech act (purposeful speech act), their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, informal, friendly, intimate), time and place of speech interaction, etc.
The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication and condemns speaking in “raised tones.” Accuracy and clarity of speech are important.
Accuracy of word usage
Accuracy and clarity of speech are interrelated. However, the speaker (writer) should be concerned about the accuracy of the statement, and the listener (reader) evaluates CLARITY.
We put our thoughts into words. For speech to be accurate, words should be used in full accordance with the meanings assigned to them in the language. L.N. Tolstoy jokingly remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain will be deprived of the right to write and receive 100 blows of the rod.”
Finding the only necessary word in a text requires the writer to exert creative forces and tireless work. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts, allowing us to familiarize ourselves with the lexical substitutions that the author made, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of the story by A.S. Pushkin’s “Dubrovsky” we find the following correction: “Members (of the court) met him (Troekurov) with expressions of [deep humiliation, deep devotion] deep servility” - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of the officials bribed by Troekurov, and the writer left it in the text.
The stylistic edits of the writers in the manuscript reflect final stage work on the text, and what kind of work preceded it, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author uttered this or that phrase “to himself” before writing it down on paper - one can only guess about this.
A careless attitude to the choice of words in our everyday speech becomes the cause of annoying lexical errors, for example: Spring has come, the martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring); I decided to become an officer because I want to continue the family dynasty (instead of: tradition).
In such cases, they talk about using a word without taking into account its semantics (that is, meaning). Such speech errors cause illogicality and even absurdity of speech: And our Far Eastern birches stand in their wedding shroud (the author confused the shroud and veil). Such “slips of the tongue” are explained by false associations (these are associative errors).
Ambiguity of a statement can arise when using polysemantic words and homonyms, if the context reveals a meaning not intended by the author. For example: The growth of young figure skaters is stimulated through demonstration performances. It would be better to say: By participating in demonstration performances, young figure skaters improve their skills. The sports commentator did not take into account the possible distortion of the meaning of the following phrase: You see Gavrilov on the screen in a beautiful combination.
The inaccuracy of word usage is explained by the inattention or low speech culture of the author. But sometimes they deliberately do not want to use this or that word in order to veil the negative meaning of the statement. They say he fantasizes instead of lies, accepted gifts instead of took bribes, etc. Let us recall an episode from the story of A.I. Kuprin "Inquiry":
“Ask him, did he take boots from Esipaki?
The second lieutenant was again convinced that he stole his inexperience and cowardice, because out of some bashful and delicate feeling he could not pronounce the real word.”
Words and expressions that soften the rough meaning of speech are called euphemisms (from the gr. ei - good, phemi - - I say). The euphemism of speech is often explained by the author’s desire to dull the critical edge of the statement when describing negative phenomena.
The wrong choice of word can cause anachronism - a violation of chronological accuracy when using words associated with a certain historical era. For example, in ancient Rome plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies (the word rally was coined much later, including in England).
Stylistic assessment of dialectisms, jargons
Our speech is subject to various influences, in particular impoverishment and clogging. Various weeds spoil our speech.” These can be dialect words, jargon and vulgarisms, unjustified borrowings. All of them require an objective stylistic assessment, both in book texts and in colloquial speech.
The Russian language is rich in folk dialects: a resident of the northern regions can utter a phrase that even Voronezh or Orel will not understand. And only the Moscow ambition, which underlies the Russian literary language, will be understandable to all Russian people. One writer, in order to show the uniqueness of local Russian dialects, wrote an “elegy” in the Vyatka dialect, the content of which must be “translated” into Russian, because it contained many incomprehensible dialectisms (this is the name for words used in local dialects, that is, dialects) .
Slang vocabulary denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon is a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished (from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups). Many words and expressions have come from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do poorly on an exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade), etc.
The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: amazing, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, donkey, plow, sunbathe, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.
What is the assessment of jargon? Of course, the one who studied Russian with L.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontova, L.N. Tolstoy, will not admire the jargon. In addition, jargon is incomprehensible to the uninitiated, and this creates the ground for misunderstandings. However, in the oral speech of young people, jargon is ineradicable; they give it liveliness, sometimes an ironic tint. But the scope of their use is narrow: it is oral speech, and stylistically reduced, non-literary.
Stylistic assessment of borrowed words
You can often hear that foreign words “clog” the Russian language and therefore you need to “fight” them. Indeed, in colloquial speech we often use “fashionable” foreign words out of place. The language of advertising is filled with Americanisms; there are many unjustified borrowings in magazines and newspapers.
The Russian language has always been open to expanding its vocabulary from foreign language sources. Borrowings from ancient languages (Greek, Latin), Turkisms, Gallicisms, words of Dutch, German, English origin, Polonisms, Ukrainianisms and others were mastered by the Russian language in different historical eras, without damaging its national identity, but only enriching it and expanding its boundaries . However, too large an influx of foreign words into our language at certain periods caused concern among figures of Russian culture.
In the late 80s - 90s, the influx of foreign words into the Russian language increased especially strongly due to changes in the sphere of political life, economics, culture, and ideology.
We are seeing an unprecedented expansion of foreign language vocabulary in all areas. She took leading positions in the political life of the country, getting used to new concepts: president, parliament, inauguration, speaker, impeachment, electorate, department, municipality, legitimate, consensus, etc.; foreign language terms have become dominant in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, driver, modem, monitoring, player, pager, fax, as well as in financial and commercial activities: auditor, barter, broker, business, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, etc. Words are invading the cultural sphere: bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, etc. Everyday speech quickly accepts new realities with their non-Russian names - speaker, Twix, hamburger, cheeseburger, Sprite, Coca, marketing, supermarket, shopping, etc. Even vernacular and jargons replenish their vocabulary with Americanisms, most often distorted, mutilated - gerla, shopnik , face, shoes, bucks, greens, teen (abbreviated teenager). The pursuit of a new, “beautiful”, sonorous, and sometimes incomprehensible to the uninitiated name leads to the fact that the individual peasant only wants to be a farmer, the extortionist bandit is called nothing more than a racketeer (or even more sonorously - a racketeer), and a murderer - killer.
Dictionaries of foreign words do not have time to master new borrowings, so a reader who does not speak English often finds himself helpless when encountering incomprehensible words in newspapers and magazines, replete with foreign language terms: exclusive (exceptional), press release (special newsletter for media workers, published government agency), consensus (lat. agreement).
Observing all the sad consequences of the “total Americanization” of our language, it is difficult to maintain objectivity in the ongoing debate about the appropriateness of foreign borrowings in the modern Russian language. And yet, voices are heard in defense of non-Russian words that are becoming entrenched in communication.
In our life in last years new phenomena enter, and with them new words. Similar processes of vocabulary enrichment due to borrowings occur in all modern languages. In our time, the flow of new ideas, things, information, technologies requires quick naming of objects and phenomena, forces us to involve already existing foreign names in the language, and not expect the creation of original words on Russian soil. Scientific, technical, military, financial, banking, sports vocabulary all over the world is striving for internationalization. The desire for scientific and technological progress and civilization is reflected in the language. Partially, the Russian language dictionary is being aligned according to international standard. How much this will change the appearance of the Russian language, whether it will enrich it or “spoil” it, time will tell.
And yet you should not get carried away with foreign words, because many new borrowings are incomprehensible, so you need to speak more simply, in pure Russian.
Paronyms and speech accuracy
Paronyms (from the Greek Para - “near”, “past” and onyta - “name”) are words similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. The words that make up the ferry series, as a rule, are correlated with each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause them to shift in speech. The semantic similarity of paronyms arises, as a rule, on the basis of word-formation relationship: these are words with the same root (alien and alien, noisy, noisy and noisy). However, sometimes there are paronyms that do not have a general meaning (for example, the similarity of the words turkey - Indian was used by the children's writer V. Dragunsky to create a comic effect: the girl Alenka, having smeared her face, as the Indians do, announces that she is an Indian).
A striking feature of paronyms (as opposed to synonyms) is that they are not interchangeable. If synonyms can replace each other in the text (there was a cry - there was a cry; a moral person - a virtuous person), then paronyms, as a rule, do not have this property (for example, you cannot say military ID instead of a military ID). The differences in the meanings of paronyms are usually so important that replacing one word with another without violating the meaning is impossible.
However, sometimes paronyms in certain values and combinations can act as synonyms. For example, you can say both distant and distant lands, and a grassy and grassy field.
As a rule, paronyms included in a pair are combined with different set words, and this must be taken into account when using them. If it is difficult to choose the correct form of a paronym or a word with which a paronym can be combined, it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of paronyms of the Russian language or to explanatory dictionaries.
It is the differences in compatibility that make it possible to distinguish between paronymous words. For example, the paronyms guaranteed and guaranteed are combined with a different set of nouns. Guarantees can be: capital, credit, securities, documentation, passport, letter, obligation, contract, repair. In combination with the word guaranteed, you can use the following words: advance, income, earnings, loan, salary, salary, production, circulation, return, work, rest, harvest. Differences in compatibility are associated with differences in meaning: guarantee - relating to a guarantee, serving as a guarantee; guaranteed - conditioned, supported by law, and also secured.
Let us also compare the paronyms demonstrative (performed for the purpose of demonstration) and demonstrative (intended for demonstration, display), which in speech can be combined with different words. The word demonstrative has three meanings, but demonstrative has only one.
From paronym dictionaries you can find out that the following are combined with the adjective demonstrative: nouns denoting actions, manifestations of a person’s attitude towards someone or something (action, care, attention, respect, character); nouns related to “military” vocabulary (attack, fire); nouns lecture, method, etc.
The adjective demonstration combines with a limited range of nouns, mainly denoting a training room for lectures, classes, demonstration of something. (lecture, auditorium, class, hall). Therefore, it is impossible to say, for example: “In classes with children we use blocks, posters, bright diagrams and other demonstrative materials.” The material can only be demonstrative, but if someone slams the door loudly when leaving, such behavior can be demonstrative.
As a rule, the dictionary entry of a paronym dictionary provides comprehensive information about the meanings of paronyms and the words with which they are combined: the dictionary warns the reader against possible errors and inaccuracies. The task of paronym dictionaries is to find out the compatibility features of words with the same root based on a comparison of their semantics.
For the convenience of considering the material, we can conditionally distinguish three groups of paronyms. 1. Coincident or similar in meaning. 2. Coinciding in some meanings. 3. Significantly different in meaning. Let's consider these groups.
Paronyms with the same root are mostly close in meaning, but differ in subtle shades of meaning. For example, the paronyms pay and pay have similar meanings.
When comparing the values, it is easy to make sure that they coincide in many respects (the highlighted part is the common one). However, the paronyms pay and pay are combined with different elephants. For example, you can pay (that) travel, sledge), bill, but pay (that) fees, debt. The verb shake is combined with nouns and the instrumental case (to pay with money, currency), which are not combined with the verb to pay. You can pay for something (for travel, for shopping!, but you cannot say, for example: pay for travel. In this case, you need to use the form pay for travel, since the verb pay does not combine with nouns with the preposition for. The ability of paronyms to combine with different The elephants and shapes of the layers present the main difficulty in their use.
Paronyms can be combined with the same forms of words, but differ in subtle shades of meaning. For example, paronyms simplify - simplify have general meaning“to make it simpler,” but the second word is characterized by the additional connotation of “more simple than it should be.” For example: simplify your singing style and simplify your speech. The semantic nuances of paronyms are usually so important that replacing one word with another without violating the meaning is impossible.
PARONOMASIA
The phenomenon of paronomasia (from the gr. para - near, onomazo - I call) consists in the sound similarity of words that have different morphological roots (cf.: pairs - sledges, pilot - boatswain, clarinet - cornet, injection - infection). As with paronymy, lexical pairs with paronomasia belong to the same part of speech and perform similar functions in a sentence. syntactic functions. Such words may have the same prefixes, suffixes, endings, but their roots are always different. Apart from random phonetic similarity, the words in such lexical pairs have nothing in common; their subject-semantic relevance is completely different.
Paronomasia, unlike paronymy, is not a natural and regular phenomenon. And although there are many phonetically similar layers in the language, comparing them as lexical pairs is the result of individual perception: one will see paronomasia in a chara circulation - type, another - in a circulation - a mirage, a third - in a circulation - a turn. However, paronymy and paronomasia are close in terms of the use of similar-sounding words in speech.
Accuracy of inflection and form formation
Accuracy and clarity of speech sometimes requires us to be clear in the use of gender and case forms of nouns. Try to guess who - a man or a woman - says about himself: “I am an orphan, an unfortunate orphan!” Everyone will think: of course, a woman! Indeed, for modern speech it has become the norm to agree in meaning with common nouns (they are equally applicable to men and women - slob, sweet tooth, coquette, smart girl). But among the writers of the past one can find a different agreement: Come, dear grandfather, take pity on me, an unfortunate orphan (Ch., “Vanka”),
Now we say: He has a terrible sweet tooth; This boy is such a slob...
However, there are cases when the incorrect use of forms of adjectives that agree with common nouns introduces ambiguity. For example: He stood amazed, but soon became filled with compassion for the little one lying in front of him. But the girl took the child in her arms and, calling the boy cute, carried her away. Are we talking about a boy or a girl?
The meaning of some nouns can be clarified case endings. Tick, in shape nominative case plural breads mean standing cereals, and breads mean products baked from flour. Therefore, the following phrase cannot be considered true: The housewife took the bread out of the oven. The endings in the following nouns should not be confused: bellows (blacksmith's) - bellows (dressed hides); images (literary and artistic) - images (icons); orders (knightly and monastic societies) - orders (insignia); belts (geographical) - belts (parts of clothing); omissions (oversights - passes (documents); sables (animals) - sable (fur); brakes (obstacles) - brakes (instruments); flowers (plants) - colors (color); junkers (until 1945 in Germany this was the name for large landowners) - cadets (cadets in military schools of Tsarist Russia).
We should not forget about the semantic differences in some grammatical forms of adjectives.
Often the full form of adjectives indicates constant sign subject, and a short one - for a temporary one. Compare: he is sick - he is sick, she is so kind - be kind, his movements are calm - his face is calm.
In other cases, the full form of adjectives denotes an absolute attribute not related to a specific situation, and a short relative attribute in relation to a specific situation: the ceiling is low (a trait in general) - the ceiling is low (for high furniture). Wed. also: the boots are small, the boots are large, the passage is narrow.
Particular precision should be observed when using pronouns. Their ability to replace previous ones cannot cause ambiguity in the statement. For example, how to understand the phrase about love for animals? - Sasha knew that if, after three days of keeping the dogs in a special place, the owners did not come for them, they would be destroyed (the owners or the dogs?). Such use of pronouns often gives rise to ambiguity and inappropriate comedy: Teachers are worried about a teenager’s free time and how to kill him...
When using a verb, ambiguity may arise due to the possibility of double interpretation of forms in -sya, for example; Children who are lost on the streets gather here (do they gather themselves or are they collected?). Failure to distinguish between subject-object relations in such cases can create an inappropriately comic statement: The chicks are fed by insects; A dog is harnessed to the sleigh to help the hunter.
Clarity of syntactic structures
The accuracy and clarity of speech is determined by the correctness of grammatical structures, the construction of phrases and sentences.
The ability to combine words into phrases in different ways creates ambiguity: The teacher had to explain a lot (did the teacher explain it or did someone explain it to him?).
The reason for the ambiguity of the statement may be the incorrect order of words in the sentence: 1. Spacious loggias are framed by screens made of reinforced glass. 2. Seven operating platforms serve several hundred people. In such sentences, the subject does not differ in form from the direct object and therefore it is unclear what (or who) is the subject of the action. An example of such confusion is the Sun covered by a cloud.
Of course, such sentences can be corrected if they are used in writing; it is enough to change the order of the words: 1. Reinforced glass screens frame the spacious loggias. 2. Several hundred people operate seven operating platforms. And, of course: The cloud covered the sun. But if you hear a phrase with the wrong word order, you may misinterpret it. This is what L.P.’s joke is based on. Chekhov: “I wish you to avoid all kinds of troubles, sorrows and misfortunes.”
Semantic ambiguity sometimes arises in combinations such as a letter to the mother (written by her or addressed to her), criticism of Belinsky, portraits of Repin, etc.
Ambiguity can also arise in complex sentences with attributive clauses such as: The illustrations for the stories that were sent to the competition were executed masterfully (were illustrations or stories sent to the competition?). In these cases, it is recommended to replace subordinate clauses with participial phrases: Illustrations sent to the stories. Or: Illustrations for submitted stories.
Conclusion
Language is an integral part of our lives; every day people communicate with each other, exploring the world through communication. Therefore, knowledge of your language, its literary norms is necessary now - in conditions of changing norms, the introduction of new words and expressions. Only by studying the stylistics and culture of speech will we be able to preserve the Russian language as it is at the moment and embellish it. Only understanding of your speech by others will allow you to take high position in society. The quality and beauty of speech make it clear the level of human development.
Literature:
1. Vvedensky L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu., “Russian language and culture of speech” - tutorial, “Phoenix”, Rostov-on-Don, 2001
2. Golub I.B., “Stylistics of the Russian language”, “Iris-press”, Moscow, 1997
3. Golub I.B., “Russian language and culture of speech” - textbook, “Logos”, Moscow, 2003
4. Dunev A.I., Dymarsky M.Ya., Kozhevnikov A.Yu. "Russian language and culture of speech", " graduate School", Moscow, 2002
5. Maksimov V.I. , Kazarinov N.V., Barabanova N.R., “Russian language and culture of speech” - textbook, “Gardariki”, Moscow, 2002
6. Reformatsky A.A., “Introduction to Linguistics”, “Aspect Press”, Moscow, 2000
7. Rosenthal D.E., “Practical statistics Russian language", "Publishing house AST-LTD", Tula, 1998
Richness of speech
Clarity of syntactic structures
The accuracy and clarity of speech is determined by the correctness of grammatical structures, the construction of phrases and sentences.
The ability to combine words into phrases in different ways creates ambiguity: The teacher had to explain a lot(did the teacher explain it or did someone explain it to him himself?).
The reason for the ambiguity of a statement may be the incorrect order of words in a sentence: 1. Spacious loggias are framed by reinforced glass screens. 2. Seven operating platforms serve several hundred people. In such sentences, the subject does not differ in form from the direct object and therefore it is unclear what (or who) is the subject of the action. An example of such confusion is The sun was covered by a cloud.
Of course, such sentences can be corrected if they are used in written speech; just change the word order: 1. Reinforced glass screens frame the spacious loggias. 2. Several hundred people operate seven operating platforms. And of course: Cloud closed Sun. But if you hear a phrase with the wrong word order, you may misinterpret it. This is what A.P.’s joke is based on. Chekhov: I wish you to avoid all kinds of troubles, sorrows and misfortunes.
Semantic ambiguity sometimes arises in combinations like letter to mother(written by her or addressed to her), criticism of Belinsky, portraits of Repin and so on.
Ambiguity can also arise in complex sentences with attributive clauses such as: Illustrations for stories, which were sent to the competition, executed masterfully(were illustrations or stories submitted to the competition?). In these cases, it is recommended to replace subordinate clauses with participial phrases: Illustrations submitted for stories. Or: Illustrations for submitted stories.
Chapter 3
In reviews of the style of good writers you can hear: “What a rich language!” And about a bad writer or speaker they say: “His language is so poor...” What does this mean? What is the difference between rich speech and poor speech?
The very first criterion of the richness and poverty of speech is the number of words we use. Pushkin, for example, had more than 20 thousand words in circulation, and the famous heroine of Ilf and Petrov, Ellochka Shchukina, “easily and freely managed with thirty.” So a person’s active vocabulary may be completely inconsistent with the lexical richness of the Russian language.
The Russian language has a huge number of words. In one of the most interesting Russian dictionaries - “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, compiled in the middle of the last century by V.I. Dahlem, 250 thousand words collected. And how many more words came into our language after that time!
But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. It is also important that many of them have not one, but several meanings, that is, they are multi-valued. For example, the word house. In what meanings is it used by Pushkin? - Lord's house secluded, protected from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river (house- building, structure); I'm scared to leave home(house- a dwelling where someone lives); Everyone home Ruled by one Parasha (house- household); Three Houses call for evening (house- family); House was on the move (house- people living together). As we see, different meanings words expand the boundaries of its use in speech. Thus, we ourselves can increase the riches of our native language if we learn to discover their new and new meanings in words.
Topic 10. Syntax. Use of syntactic constructions in speech. Common mistakes in the management and construction of syntactic structures. Ways to fix themAnyone who wants to speak beautifully should
you must first speak clearly and have
the satisfaction of the chosen sayings to
depicting your thoughts.
M.V. Lomonosov
Syntax studies the structure of coherent speech. Units of syntax
are a phrase and a sentence. They say about a phrase that it is “a thought in the process of becoming”; in a sentence, the thought receives its linguistic expression.
Collocation- a combination of two or more independent words related to each other grammatically and in meaning: love (who?) animals; rain and snow.
Offer- a word or group of words that are grammatically formed and have relative semantic and intonation completeness. For example: New Year. Nimble minnows run between the algae along the sandy bottom.(I. Sokolov-Mikitov)
A sentence is a basic syntactic unit, “a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts, conveying emotions and expressions of will”*
TO syntax errors include the following:
1.
Management violations.
It is necessary to distinguish between constructions with words and phrases that are similar in meaning and have different controls. For example:
superiority over something - an advantage over something
confidence in something - belief in something
pay the fare - pay the fare
There are syntax errors in the following sentences:
- Making sure there is nothing morefrom(from) the speakers cannot be pulled out, they decided to close the debate
- Both students and employees of the institute can compete in the first stage of the competition.
Often in sentences with two or more control words there is a common addition. Such constructions are correct if the controls
words require the same case and preposition: read and take notes from a book, speak and write about modern literature. But if the dependent word appears with words that require different controls, then an error occurs.
For example: We love and are proud of our Motherland(we love What? proud how?)
Therefore, it will be correct:
We love our Motherland and are proud of it.
2. Violation of agreement.
For example: A young doctor came for an appointment.
Here we are dealing with a violation of agreement between the subject “doctor” and the definition “young”, which is unacceptable. And the discrepancy between the subject and the predicate (the doctor has come) is an acceptable option. It will be right: The young doctor came(or came) appointment(if we are talking about a woman).
Fluctuations in approval forms
Agreement in the designation of a woman and her profession such as “the doctor has come” and “the doctor has come.” If the subject is a m.r. noun denoting a profession (doctor), then the predicate agrees in gender - “came”. But in the colloquial style of speech, semantic coordination (came) is increasingly spreading. Scientific speech such agreement is not typical. And agreement with the adjective in meaning (famous doctor) is unacceptable.
Agreement of the predicate with the subject. An expressed quantitative-nominal combination like “several people came - came.” The tendency towards agreement in meaning has increased.
A noun denotes an inanimate object, ( several wagons delivered)
The predicate is expressed by the short form of the passive participle ( most letters were delivered, several people were injured)
The predicate precedes the subject ( at the beginning of the street it was discovered
several shadows)
B) the predicate is used in the plural, If:
The subject denotes an animate object, and the predicate emphasizes the activity of the action ( several people rushed to help)
There are homogeneous members in the subject and predicate ( several dozen men and women stood at the hospital gates)
The subject is separated from the predicate by a separate phrase ( several people in the crowd fainted)
3. Errors in the management of adverbial verbs.
For example: As I approached the station, my hat fell off.
An adverbial phrase denotes an additional action to the main one. IN this proposal the main action is expressed by the verb “flew”.
This predicate refers to the word "hat". It turns out that the hat was approaching the station. It will be right: When I was approaching the station, it flew off me hat or Approaching the station, I lost my hat.
4. Error in the use of the participial phrase.
For example: A book lying on the table.
The participial phrase must appear either after the word being defined or before it.
A book lying on a table is a book lying on a table.
5. Violation of word order.
For example: We not only received a textbook, but also a collection of exercises.
Here we are dealing with a violation of word order with the double conjunction “not only, but also.” It will be right: We received not only a textbook, but also a collection of exercises.
6
.
Mixing direct and indirect speech.
For example: A friend said I'll wait.
7. Violation of norms in the use of homogeneous members of a sentence.
For example, In order to improve the skills of teachers in passing
practices and forms of work.
8. Violation of coordination between subject and predicate.
For example, two came or went
Syntax-stylisticerrors
Ignorance of features functional styles RFL is the main cause of syntax and stylistic errors. As a rule, syntactic and stylistic errors are associated with the use of complex syntax and participial phrases in a conversational style.
For example: He is my brother.
The use of the connective “to be” in the present tense is typical for scientific style, in a colloquial style this use is a syntax-stylistic error.
Self-control questions:
1. List the main types of syntax errors.
2. Give examples for each type.
3. Give examples of violations of syntax and stylistic norms.
Tasks for independent work students
Task No. 1.
Eliminate errors associated with incorrect use of control forms.
A) The mother was very worried about her son
B) Every specialist sees the advantage of the new technology over the old one.
IN) Good preparation athletes gives us confidence in victory
this team
D) By the end of the year, these employees will have to report on their progress
D) The documentary shows how an emigrant’s family searches for
E) The department organized and manages industrial practice
students.
Task No. 2.
Are there any errors in the proposed statements? If there are, then correct them.
1. The patients waited a very long time for the doctor, they even complained to the manager, and finally the doctor came.
2. The nurse told the patient that doctor Sidorov had come a long time ago and was waiting for him.
3. The young director put on a very good picture.
4. Yesterday I managed to take three necessary textbooks on pediatrics to the library.
5. Our head doctor is very strict.
6. I bought four beautiful toys as a gift for my nephews.
7. Ivanova is a very strict director.
9. The nurse told the purpose of her visit.
10. The book is the result of the author’s work.
Task No. 3.
Rewrite the sentences, choosing the desired option for agreeing the predicate with the subject from the two proposed. What trend will you be guided by?
1. Yesterday I bought/purchased several anatomy textbooks at the Chacona store.
2. For today's surgery lesson, most of the students were/were well prepared.
3. Seeing a drowning man, several people rushed / rushed to help.
4. Several dozen boys and girls were / were waiting for the arrival of the commuter train.
5. Most of the students were / were upset about the cancellation of the class.
6. Several people couldn’t/were unable to board the bus and were left/remained waiting for the next one.
7. Several drugs prescribed by the doctor were/were unavailable in the pharmacy.
Task No. 4.
Match the predicate with the subject, add the ending.
A) A row of tables stood... in the middle of the audience.
B) Five students approached the examination table.
C) Twenty-two notebooks, checked by the teacher, were lying... on the table.
D) Fifty-one delegates arrived at the meeting.
D) A thousand people went on tour.
E) Only ten schoolchildren went on the excursion.
G) Five fighters rushed...at the enemy bombers.
H) Many graduates of our school began to work in new structures.
Task No. 5.
Correct errors in the use of adverbial and participial phrases.
While reviewing the editorial mail, my attention was drawn to the letter
schoolgirls. Returning from the exhibition, he had to look into the library. The arriving train departs for track five in half an hour. Approaching the house, the dogs greeted us with loud barking. Without stopping towing the car, it shook and growled.
Task No. 6.
Make up sentences using the following prepositions:
Thanks, in spite of, by, in, on.
Task No. 7.
Correct the sentences, explain the mistakes.
A) The patient was given fruit, strong broth, cocoa, and oranges.
B) Vakula’s feeling had to go through trials, indifference and
Oksana's whims.
C) Residents demanded troubleshooting and repairs.
D) Representatives from many countries took part in the tournament: Austria, Hungary,
Russia, Romania, USA, etc.
which tells about the unknown pages of the war.
E) The speaker tried to convince his listeners that it was as if
The provisions he put forward have been tested in practice.
G) Humanity is seized with a passionate desire to ensure that war in
the power of its monstrosity would have outlived itself.
Z) Ivanov said that I won’t fall asleep, but I will learn all the tickets before the morning.
I) The artist depicted how Peter 1 leads troops into battle, adhering to
Surikov's manners.
LITERATURE
Vvedenskaya, L. A. Russian language and speech culture: textbook. aid for students universities / L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova, E. Yu. Kashaeva. - 14th ed., - Rostov-n/D: Phoenix, 2005. - 539 p.
3. Izmailova, L. V. Russian language and speech culture for pedagogical colleges: textbook. for students average prof. education / L. V. Izmailova, N. N. Demyanova, N. P. Menshikova. - Rostov-n/D: Phoenix, 2005. – 413 p. (Secondary vocational education).
4. Propaedeutics of internal diseases: textbook. for secondary professional students education / ed. V. Kh. Vasilenko, A. L. Grebneva. - M.: Medicine, 1982. – 300 p.
5. Rosenthal, D.E. Russian language: collection of exercises for schoolchildren. senior classes and entering universities / D. E. Rosenthal. - M.: Bustard, 2001. – 367 p.
6. Fedosyuk, M. Yu. Russian language for non-philological students: textbook. / T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, O. A. Mikhailova, N. A. Nikolina. – 11th ed., -Publishing houses: Flint, Nauka, 2007. - 256 p.
7. Russian language and speech culture: educational method. aid for students secondary medical educational institutions/ compiled by: E.V. Menzul, O.V. Petina.- M.: 2003.-198 p.
8. Phraseologisms of the Russian language / comp. M.F. Khudyakova. - Ekaterinburg: Ural Publishing House, 2000. - 208 p. (To help teacher and student)
DICTIONARIES
1. Ozhegov, S. I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova. - M.: 1992. – 988 p.
2. Pronouncing dictionary Russian language / edited by R. I. Avanesov. - M.: “Russian language”, 1989. – 686 p.
3. Mokienko, V. M. Why do they say that? From Avos to Yat: historical and etymological reference book on Russian phraseology / V.M. Mokienko. - St. Petersburg: “Norint”, 2006. – 512 p.
4. Panov, V. T., School grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language / V. T. Panov, A. V. Tekuchev. - M.: Education, 1991. – 287 p.
Glossary of terms
Anachronism – violation of chronological accuracy by erroneous attribution of events from one era to another
Archaism– an obsolete word, figure of speech or grammatical form.
Variation of norms/fluctuation of norms– the coexistence of two different pronunciations or spellings of linguistic elements, both of which are acceptable.
External speech- this is a type of speech in which verbal communication is carried out in time and space, external speech is characterized by expansion.
Inner speech- this is a type of speech in which the process of forming a thought is carried out without its detailed expression, oral or written.
Graphic arts– outlines of written or printed characters, letters.
Dialectism- a word or figure of speech from any dialect (local or social variety of language).
Discussion– a collective discussion of any controversial or unresolved issue in order to establish the measure of truth in each of the points of view put forward and come to a common opinion.
Dispute– an exchange of opinions on any issue, during which each party defends its understanding and refutes the opinion of its opponents.
Report– a detailed message on a specific topic in order to form the opinion of listeners on the issues raised and determine the nature of further practical actions.
Genre- a type of text characterized by unity constructive principle, the originality of the composition and the use of stylistic devices.
Jargon- speech of any social or other group united by common interests, containing many words and expressions different from the common language, including artificial, sometimes conventional.
Officialism- a stable turn of speech inherent in the official business style of the Russian literary language.
Contamination- the emergence of a new expression, word, form by combining elements of two expressions or forms that are somewhat similar.
A culture of speech is an academic discipline about the functioning of language in modern speech, optimal choice and organization of linguistic means
depending on the goals, conditions and content of communication and the objective basis of normalization.
Vocabulary- the vocabulary of a language, any of its styles, spheres, as well as someone’s works of art.
When constructing syntactic constructions, sometimes there is a discrepancy between the premise and the consequence. So, on the entrance exam in literature, a girl writes: I love Moscow very much! And how can I not love her, after all, I myself am from Tambov... And the young man explained the action of Pushkin’s heroine in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: After Lensky's death in a duel, Olga had no choice but to marry a hussar. The beginning of such phrases sets us up for one thing (we think that a Muscovite is writing an essay; we expect that Olga will mourn the groom inconsolably), but the end of the sentence is exactly the opposite of its expected completion.
An individual sentence usually has only relative semantic completeness; a group of sentences conveys the content of the statement much more fully. Such a group of interconnected independent sentences forms a special syntactic unit of a higher order - a complex syntactic whole.
Semantic relationships that unite individual sentences into a complex syntactic whole are reinforced by various means: repetition of words from the previous sentence, the use of personal and demonstrative pronouns, adverbs (then, then, then, there, so etc.), unions (but, however, so and etc.), introductory words indicating the connection of thoughts (so, therefore, firstly, secondly, on the contrary, finally etc.), as well as the order of words in sentences, the intonation of parts and the whole, etc.
An example of a complex syntactic whole, in which different means of combining independent sentences are used, is an excerpt from the story “Hadji Murad” by Leo Tolstoy:
When the next day Hadji Murat came to Vorontsov, the prince's reception room was full of people. There was yesterday's general with a bristly mustache, full form and in orders, who came to take his leave; there was also a regimental commander who was threatened with legal action for abuses of the regiment's food supply. There was a rich Armenian, patronized by Doctor Andreevsky, who owned vodka and was now trying to renew the contract. There, all in black, was the widow of a murdered officer, who had come to ask for a pension or to place her children in the government account. There was also a ruined Georgian prince in a magnificent Georgian suit, who had procured for himself the abolished church estate. There was a bailiff with a large package, which contained a project about a new method of conquering the Caucasus. There was one khan, who appeared only to tell the house that he had been with the prince. Everyone waited in line and one by one were led into the prince’s office by a handsome blond young adjutant.
In this passage, the first sentence forms the beginning, the last - the ending. They are held together into a complex syntactic whole by the remaining sentences, which are connected by parallelism of structure and repeated words was here. Such a connection within a complex syntactic whole is called parallel.
However, the correct construction of a complex syntactic whole, observing all the grammatical features of the parallel connection of its parts, does not yet guarantee consistency in the development of thought. The development of thought must go in one direction, “failures” are unacceptable: comparison of incomparables, illogical comparisons.
The discrepancy between the grammatical and semantic movement of speech can be illustrated by an example from the already cited work of N.V. Gogol. He describes his characters using the technique of parallelism:
Ivan Ivanovich has an extraordinary gift of speaking extremely pleasantly. Lord, how he speaks!.. Like a dream after a swim. Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, is more silent... Ivan Ivanovich is thin and tall; Ivan Nikiforovich is a little lower, but extends in thickness. Ivan Ivanovich's head looks like a radish with its tail down; Ivan Nikiforovich's head on a radish with his tail up...
Ivan Ivanovich gets very angry if he gets a fly in the borscht: he then loses his temper and throws the plate, and the owner gets it. Ivan Nikiforovich is extremely fond of swimming and, when he sits up to his neck in water, he orders a table and a samovar to be placed in the water, and he really likes to drink tea in such coolness (emphasis added by us. - I.G.).
Ivan Ivanovich shaves his beard twice a week; Ivan Nikiforovich once. Ivan Ivanovich is extremely curious. God forbid, if you start telling him something, you won’t tell him! If he is dissatisfied with something, he immediately lets you notice it. It is extremely difficult to tell from Ivan Nikiforovich's appearance whether he is happy or angry; although he will be happy about something, he will not show it. Ivan Ivanovich is of a somewhat timid nature. Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them (emphasis added by us. - I.G.).
The combination of structural parallelism and logical failure creates a comic effect.
There is an even greater semantic dependence of simple sentences on each other as part of a complex syntactic whole with a chain connection between individual statements. In this case, each new sentence “picks up” the content of the previous one, developing the author’s idea. The close connection of individual sentences is emphasized by pronouns, repetition of words and other grammatical devices. For example, I.S. Turgenev in the novel “Rudin”:
The house of Daria Mikhailovna Lasunskaya was considered almost the first in the entire province. Built according to Rastrelli’s drawings, in the style of the last century, it stood majestically on the top of a hill, at the foot of which one of the main rivers of central Russia flowed. Daria Mikhailovna herself was a noble and rich lady, the widow of a privy councilor... She belonged to high society and was reputed to be a somewhat strange woman, not entirely kind, but extremely intelligent. In her youth she was very pretty. Poets wrote poems to her, young people fell in love with her, important gentlemen trailed after her. But twenty-five or thirty years have passed since then, and not a trace of the former charms remains.
With a chain connection of sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole, they “grow together” so much that it is often impossible to exclude one of them. Try (for the sake of experiment) to omit the third or fourth and fifth sentences, and the entire passage will lose its meaning, the speech will become illogical.
The combination of individual sentences into a complex syntactic whole must correctly reflect the train of thought. The connection between sentences and complex syntactic wholes, their sequence must be logically justified. If this is not the case, then the chain connection of individual sentences will not connect disparate thoughts. On the contrary, stringing together random fragmentary statements will only emphasize the illogicality of the speech flow. A classic example of such meaningless chatter is the performance of Chekhov's hero Nyukhin in the scene “On the dangers of tobacco.” Here is an excerpt from this work.
By the way, I forgot to tell you that at my wife’s music school, in addition to managing the housekeeping, I also teach mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, history, solfeggio, literature, etc. My wife charges a special fee for dancing, singing and drawing, although I also teach dancing and singing. Our music school is located in Pyatisobachy Lane, at number thirteen. And my daughters were born on the thirteenth...
My wife has seven daughters... No, it seems six are to blame... (Briskly.) Seven!.. I lived with my wife for thirty-three years, and, I can say, these were best years of my life, not just the best, but in general. They passed, in a word, like one happy moment; in fact, to hell with them.
Despite the external grammatical correctness of speech, the sequence of thoughts is broken here: the speaker contradicts himself, jumps from one thought to another, and his speech becomes chaotic. Isn’t it surprising that mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. are taught at a music school; the speaker does not remember how many daughters he has (however, he says: “My wife has seven daughters,” which is also illogical). Calling the years he lived with his wife the best of his life, he immediately adds: not that they are the best, but in general. And right there in his speech there are incompatible assessments - They flowed by... like one happy moment And Damn them completely. Everything is illogical and absurd, although the speaker did not violate the structural syntactic rules for constructing sentences. On the contrary, his speech is emotional, but it lacks logic and clarity of thought.
In contrast to parody texts, we will give a classic example of a complex syntactic whole, built according to all the laws of grammar and logic. The beginning of the famous story by I.A. Bunin provides an excellent example of such a complex syntactic structure:
A gentleman from San Francisco - no one remembered his name either in Naples or Capri - was traveling to the Old World for two whole years, with his wife and daughter, solely for the sake of entertainment.
He was firmly convinced that he had every right to rest, to pleasure, to a long and comfortable journey, and who knows what else. His reason for such confidence was that, firstly, he was rich, and secondly, he had just started life, despite his fifty-eight years. Until that time, he had not lived, but only existed, although very well, but still pinning all his hopes on the future. He worked tirelessly, and finally saw that a lot had already been done, that he was almost equal to those whom he had once taken as a model, and decided to take a break.
The people to whom he belonged had the custom of beginning the enjoyment of life with a trip to Europe, India, and Egypt. He decided to do the same. Of course, he wanted to reward himself first of all for his years of work; however, he was also happy for his wife and daughter. His wife had never been particularly impressionable, but all older American women are passionate travelers. And as for the daughter, an older girl and slightly sickly, the journey was absolutely necessary for her: not to mention the health benefits, don’t there be happy encounters during travel? Here sometimes you sit at a table or look at the frescoes next to a billionaire.
Syntactic norms of a language are the norms for constructing phrases and sentences.
Such norms are related, for example,
- with choice of noun case(not seeing the error is not seeing the error). Regulatory transitive verbs when negated, they require placing the noun in R.p., i.e. the normative option would be not to see errors,
- word order(The novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time). The normative participial phrase is placed either before or after the word being defined, i.e. the correct options will be: The novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time or the novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time;
- using participial and adverbial phrases(Having arrived to work in Small town, people advised him to visit the Turkins family). According to the rules, the gerund denotes the action of the subject, i.e. should be written: When Startsev came to work in a small town, people advised him to visit the Turkins family;
- homogeneous members of the sentence: Chekhov was a famous prose writer and short story writer.
Normatively, it is impossible to combine generic and specific concepts as homogeneous members: the word prose writer is generic (broader in meaning) in relation to the word short story writer, i.e. I had to write: Chekhov was a famous prose writer.
- construction complex sentence The first thing I want to draw attention to is the economic situation. According to syntactic norms, the predicate expressed by a noun is used in Im.p., i.e. The correct sentence would be: The first thing I want to draw attention to is the economic situation
Types of Syntax Errors
- word order violation:
The stands display posters about the writer’s speeches in German, French, Czech, Polish languages. (Need: The stands display posters in German, French, Czech, Polish about the writer’s speeches.) In the first version, the incorrect word order created ambiguity,
- violation of management standards:
a) the use of a controlled word in a case other than that required by the controlling word:
The results we have achieved are shown in Table No. 1.
(The short participle shown requires that the controlled word be in V.p.) Correct option: The results we have achieved are shown in table No. 1)
b) violation of control with synonymous words - confidence in victory. Synonymous words confidence - faith require the word to be expressed in different cases: confidence (in what?) in victory, faith (in what?) in victory;
c) violation of control when homogeneous members sentences - covers up and indulges evil inclinations. Homogeneous members of the sentence require different cases from the controlled word: covers (what?) bad inclinations and indulges (what?) them;
d) stringing of cases - has a list compiled by the agent. The use of a chain of dependent words in the same case creates ambiguity: has a list compiled by the agent).
- errors in the use of homogeneous members of the sentence:
a) incorrect combination of materially heterogeneous concepts as homogeneous members:
educational and long-term task;
specific and generic concepts: oranges and fruits;
overlapping concepts: youth and girls;
noun and infinitive form of the verb: I wish you good luck and stay with us;
involved and participial phrases: giving all his strength and striving...;
participial phrase and attributive clause: who passed the work and received...;
b) ambiguity due to the possibility of assigning one of the homogeneous members to another series:
The listeners wished the writer relief from illness and health.;
due to the incompatibility of one of the homogeneous members with other words: surround with attention and help (you can: surround with attention, you cannot - surround with help);
c) incorrect use of prepositions and conjunctions with homogeneous members of the sentence:
children's complex on the Black Sea and the Moscow region - needed: on the Black Sea and in the Moscow region; I read not only the books, but also took notes on them, it is necessary: not only read, but also….
- errors when using participial phrases:
a) incorrect form of participle (type, tense, voice or case form): along the path drawn by the great Glinka (in this case the case form of the participle is incorrect: along the path (which?) drawn;
b) incorrect word order: The edited manuscript by the editor lay on the table. Needed: A manuscript edited by an editor... or a manuscript edited by an editor.
- incorrect use of participial phrase:
a) the type of participle is not taken into account:
Approaching the river, we stopped our horses and rushed into the water. Need: Having approached the river, we stopped the horses and rushed into the water.
b) it is not taken into account that the action of the gerund refers to the action of the subject:
Running to the station, the train had already left. Arriving in the city, it was still dark. Need: When we ran up to the station, the train had already left. When we arrived in the city, it was still dark.
- errors when constructing a complex sentence:
a) cluttering the sentence with similar subordinate clauses:
He suggested that his readers had misunderstood him, saying that he had a completely different interpretation of events. Necessary: He suggested that the readers misunderstood him, because he presented a completely different interpretation of events.
b) diversity of parts of a complex sentence:
It is necessary to remember that you need to: 1) leave space for notes, 2) be sure to include footnotes, 3) place the list of references in alphabetical order. Need: It is necessary to remember that you need to: 1) leave space for notes, 2) be sure to include footnotes, 3) place the list of references in alphabetical order.
c) displacement of the structure:
The main thing the speaker insisted on was taking into account the addressee factor. Need: The main thing the speaker insisted on was taking into account the addressee factor.
d) incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words:
But nevertheless, we must say. Necessary: But nevertheless we must say.
e) incorrect word order in a complex sentence:
In front of us were the horses of the Cossacks, whose muzzles were covered in foam. Needed: In front of us were Cossack horses, whose muzzles were covered in foam.
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