The scientific style, the features of which are the subject of research for linguists, is a set of specific speech techniques used primarily in the scientific, scientific, technical, and popular science spheres to express and formalize ideas, hypotheses, and achievements that are diverse in content and purpose.
General characteristics of scientific text
A scientific text is a summary, result or report of research activities, which is created for a circle of people who have the appropriate qualifications to perceive and evaluate it. In order to make it as informative as possible, the author must resort to the use of formalized language, special means and methods of presenting material. Most often, a scientific text is a work published or intended for publication. Scientific texts also include specially prepared materials for oral presentation, for example, a report at a conference or an academic lecture.
Characteristic features of the scientific style are neutrality of tone, objective approach and information content, structured text, the presence of terminology and specific linguistic means, accepted among scientists for a logical, adequate presentation of the material.
Varieties of scientific style
The prevalence of the written form of existence of works of scientific style determines the validity, balance, and clarity of their content and design.
The division of scientific texts into types and types is explained, firstly, by the difference in objects described by numerous disciplines, the content of the research activities of scientists, and the expectations of the potential audience. There is a basic specification of scientific literature, which divides texts into scientific-technical, scientific-humanitarian, scientific-natural. We can also distinguish more specific sublanguages that exist within each of the sciences - algebra, botany, political science, etc.
M. P. Senkevich structured the types of scientific style according to the degree of “scientificness” of the final work and identified the following types:
1. The scientific style itself (otherwise known as academic) is characteristic of serious works intended for a narrow circle of specialists and containing the author’s research concept - monographs, articles, scientific reports.
2. The presentation or synthesis of scientific heritage contains secondary information materials (abstracts, annotations) - they are created in a scientific-informational or scientific-abstract style.
4. Scientific reference literature (reference books, collections, dictionaries, catalogues) aims to provide extremely concise, accurate information, without details, to present the reader only with facts.
5. Educational and scientific literature has a special scope; the fundamentals of science are outlined here and a didactic component is added, providing illustrative elements and materials for repetition ( educational publications for various educational institutions).
6. Popular science publications present biographies outstanding people, stories of the origin of various phenomena, chronicles of events and discoveries and are accessible to a wide range of interested persons, thanks to illustrations, examples, and explanations.
Properties of scientific text
A text created in a scientific style is a standardized closed system.
The main features of the scientific style are compliance with the regulatory requirements of the literary language, the use of standard phrases and expressions, the use of the capabilities of a “graphic” language of symbols and formulas, the use of references and notes. For example, the following clichés are generally accepted in the scientific community: we will talk about the problem..., it should be noted that... the data obtained during the study led to the following conclusions..., let's move on to the analysis... etc.
To convey scientific information, elements of an “artificial” language - graphic - are widely used: 1) graphs, diagrams, blocks, drawings, drawings; 2) formulas and symbols; 3) special terms and lexical features of the scientific style - for example, names of physical quantities, mathematical symbols, etc.
So, the scientific style, the features of which are characterized by compliance, serves as accuracy, clarity and conciseness in expressing the thoughts of the study. A scientific statement is characterized by a monologue form, the logic of the narrative is revealed sequentially, the conclusions are drawn up as complete and meaningful phrases.
The semantic structure of a scientific text
Every text of a scientific style has its own logic of construction, a certain finished form that corresponds to the laws of structuring. As a rule, the researcher adheres to the following scheme:
- introduction to the essence of the problem, justification of its relevance and novelty;
- identifying the subject of research (in some cases, the object);
- setting a goal, solving certain tasks in the process of achieving it;
- a review of scientific sources that in any way affect the subject of research, a description of the theoretical and methodological basis for the work; justification of terminology;
- theoretical and practical significance of a scientific work;
- the content of the scientific work itself;
- description of the experiment, if any;
- research results, structured conclusions based on its results.
Language features: vocabulary
Abstract tone and generality form the lexical features of the scientific style:
1. The use of words in their specific meanings, the predominance of words with abstract meanings ( volume, permeability, resistance, conflict, stagnation, word formation, bibliography etc.).
2. Words from everyday use acquire a terminological or generalized meaning in the context of a scientific work. This applies, for example, technical terms: coupling, reel, tube and etc.
3. Main semantic load in a scientific text there are terms, but their share is not the same in different types of works. Terms introduce certain concepts into circulation, the correct and logical definition of which is a necessary condition for a professionally written text ( ethnogenesis, genome, sinusoid).
4. Works of scientific style are characterized by abbreviations and compound words: publishing house, GOST, Gosplan, million, research institute.
The linguistic features of the scientific style, in particular in the field of vocabulary, have a functional orientation: the generalized abstract nature of the presentation of the material, the objectivity of the author’s views and conclusions, the accuracy of the information presented.
Language features: morphology
Morphological features of the scientific style:
1. At the grammatical level using certain forms words and the construction of phrases and sentences creates the abstractness of a scientific text: It is noted that..., it appears that... etc.
2. Verbs in the context of a scientific text acquire a timeless, generalized meaning. Moreover, predominantly the forms of present and past tense are used. Their alternation does not add either “picturesqueness” or dynamics to the narrative; on the contrary, they indicate the regularity of the phenomenon being described: the author notes, indicates...; goal achievement is facilitated by problem solving etc.
3. The predominant (approximately 80%) also attach a generalized meaning to the scientific text. Perfective verbs are used in stable phrases: let's consider...; Let's show with examples etc. Indefinitely personal and impersonal forms with a connotation of obligation or necessity are also used: characteristics refer to ...; you need to be able to...; don't forget about...
4. Used in passive meaning reflexive verbs: required to prove...; explained in detail...; issues are being considered etc. Such verb forms allow you to focus on the description of the process, structure, mechanism. Short ones have the same meaning passive participles: O the definition is given...; the norm can be understood etc.
5. B scientific speech Short adjectives are also used, for example: attitude is characteristic.
6. A typical feature of scientific speech is the pronoun We, used instead I. This technique forms such features as authorial modesty, objectivity, generalization: During the study, we came to the conclusion...(instead of: I came to a conclusion…).
Language features: syntax
The linguistic features of the scientific style in terms of syntax reveal the connection of speech with the specific thinking of the scientist: the constructions used in the texts are neutral and commonly used. The most typical method is syntactic compression, when the volume of text is compressed while increasing its information content and semantic content. This is realized using a special construction of phrases and sentences.
Syntactic features scientific style:
1. Use of attributive phrases “noun + noun in the genitive case”: metabolism, currency liquidity, dismantling device etc.
2. Definitions expressed by an adjective are used in the meaning of the term: unconditioned reflex, solid sign, historical excursion and etc.
3. The scientific style (definitions, reasoning, conclusions) is characterized by a compound nominal predicate with a noun, usually with an omitted linking verb: Perception is a basic cognitive process...; Deviations from normative language implementations are one of the most bright features children's speech. Another common “predicate formula” is a compound nominal predicate with a short participle: can be used.
4. Adverbs in the role of circumstance serve to characterize the quality or property of the phenomenon under study: significantly, interestingly, convincingly, in a new way; all these and other events are well described in historical literature….
5. The syntactic structures of sentences express conceptual content, therefore the standard for a writing scientist is a complete sentence of a narrative type with a conjunction between its parts, with lexical content neutral in terms of style and normative order words: It must be said that animal psychologists have long, persistently and unsuccessfully tried to teach the most developed anthropoids (chimpanzees) sound language. Among complex sentences, structures with one subordinate clause dominate: Between the intellect and language there is an intermediate primary communicative system, which is called the functional basis of speech.
6. The role of interrogative sentences is to draw attention to the material being presented, to express assumptions and hypotheses: Maybe the monkey is capable of sign language?
7. To implement a detached, deliberately impersonal presentation of information, impersonal offers are widely used different types: Genres of equal status include friendly communication (heart-to-heart talk, chat, etc.)... This emphasizes the desire to be an objective researcher speaking on behalf of the general scientific community.
8. In order to formalize cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, complex sentences with coordinating and subordinating conjunctions are used in scientific speech. Often found complex alliances and allied words: in view of the fact that, despite the fact that, due to the fact that, because, meanwhile, while, whereas etc. Complex sentences with determinatives, causes, conditions, time, consequences are widespread.
Means of communication in scientific text
The scientific style, the features of which lies in its specific use, is based not only on the normative basis of the language, but also on the laws of logic.
Thus, in order to logically present his thoughts, the researcher must use the morphological features of the scientific style and syntactic possibilities for communication individual parts of your statement. This purpose is served by various syntactic constructions, complex sentences of various types with “clip words”, clarifying, participial, participial phrases, enumerations, etc.
Here are the main ones:
- comparison of any phenomena ( like..., so...);
- the use of connecting clauses containing additional information about what was said in the main part;
- participial phrases also contain additional scientific information;
- introductory words and phrases serve to communicate between semantic parts both within one sentence and between paragraphs;
- “clip words” (for example, thus, therefore, meanwhile, in conclusion, in other words, as we see) serve to establish a logical connection between in different parts text;
- homogeneous members of a sentence are necessary to list logically similar concepts;
- frequent use of clichéd structures, logic and conciseness of the syntactic structure.
So, the scientific style, the features of the means of communication of which we have examined, is quite stable system, difficult to change. Despite the extensive system of opportunities for scientific creativity, regulated norms help a scientific text “keep in shape.”
Language and style of popular science text
The presentation of material in popular science literature is close to neutral, general literature, since the reader is offered only specially selected facts, interesting aspects, and fragments of historical reconstructions. The form of presentation of this kind of data should be accessible to non-specialists; therefore, the selection of material, the system of evidence and examples, the manner of presentation of information, as well as the language and style of works related to popular science literature are somewhat different from the scientific text itself.
You can visualize the features of the popular science style in comparison with the scientific style using the table:
The popular science style uses many means that belong to the national language, but features of originality are given to it by the functional features of the use of these means, the specific organization of the text of such a scientific work
So, the features of the scientific style are specific lexical and grammatical means, syntactic formulas, thanks to which the text becomes “dry” and precise, understandable for a narrow circle of specialists. The popular science style is designed to make a story about a scientific phenomenon accessible to a wider range of readers or listeners (“simply about complex things”), so it is close in impact to works of artistic and journalistic style.
Used in the field of science and teaching. Its main features are the following: generality and abstraction, terminology, emphasized logic. Secondary features: unambiguousness, semantic accuracy, standardization, objectivity, brevity, rigor, clarity, non-categoricalness, impersonality, imagery, evaluativeness, etc.
There are three substyles: the actual scientific style of the text (articles, monographs, dissertations, scientific reports, speeches at scientific conferences, debates), scientific and educational (lectures, textbooks, reports, essays).
Scientific style: its main characteristics
Academician D. S. Likhachev indicated in his works:
1. The requirements for scientific style differ significantly from the requirements for the language of fiction.
2. The use of metaphors and various images in the language of scientific work is permissible only if it is necessary to put a logical emphasis on a certain thought. In the scientific style, imagery is only a pedagogical device necessary to attract attention to the main idea of the work.
3. Indeed good language scientific style should not be noticed by the reader. He must notice only the thought, and not the language in which the thought is expressed.
4. The main advantage of scientific language is clarity.
5. Other advantages of the scientific style are brevity, lightness, and simplicity.
6. Scientific style involves minimal use subordinate clauses in scientific works. Phrases should be short, the transition from one sentence to another should be natural and logical, “unnoticed.”
7. You should avoid frequent use of pronouns that make you think that they have replaced what they refer to.
8. There is no need to be afraid of repetitions, try to get rid of them mechanically. The same concept must be denoted by the same term; it cannot be replaced with a synonym. The only repetitions that should be avoided are those that come from the poverty of the writer’s language.
10. Scientific style encourages conversion Special attention on the quality of words. It is better to use the word “on the contrary” instead of “on the contrary”, “difference” instead of “difference”.
Scientific style texts: characteristics of linguistic means
- high frequency (approximately 13%) of prepositions, conjunctions, prepositional combinations (due to, with the help of, on the basis of, compared with..., in relation to, in connection with..., etc.);
- complex sentences (especially complex sentences);
- sentences with introductory words, adverbial and participial phrases.
Scientific style should be familiar to everyone.
In scientific speech, predominantly analytical forms of the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are used (more complex, more compact, more inert, the simplest, the most important). Moreover, the superlative degree is usually formed by combining the positive degree of the adjective and the adverbs most, least; sometimes the adverb very is used and the adverb most is almost never used. Synthetic form superlatives with the suffixes ‑eiš-, ‑aysh-, due to its emotional and expressive connotation, is atypical for scientific speech, with the exception of some stable combinations of a terminological nature: the smallest particles, the simplest organisms. From synonymous forms comparative degree higher - somewhat (slightly) higher, usually the second.
Brief adjectives in a scientific style, in deviation from the general pattern of the Russian language, express not a temporary, but a permanent attribute of objects and phenomena: Pure ethyl alcohol is colorless; Fluorine, chlorine, bromine are poisonous.
Features of the use of a verb are associated with its tense forms. The vast majority of verbs are used in the present tense. They most often express attributive meaning or the meaning of a statement of fact and appear in an abstract temporary meaning (present timeless): Carbon is part of carbon dioxide; Atoms move; When heated, bodies expand. The present timeless is the most abstract, generalized, and this explains its predominance in the scientific style.
Since verbs in the present tense form mean constant signs, properties, processes or patterns of phenomena, with them it is possible to use type determinants usually, always, as a rule, constantly and impossible - at the present time, at this (given) moment, now, etc.
The abstraction of meaning extends to the forms of verbs of the future and past tense, acquiring a timeless meaning: Let's determine the area of the triangle; Let's make an experiment; Let's make an equation; The formula was applied; Research was carried out.
Of the aspectual forms of verbs, the imperfective forms are the most frequent in scientific speech as they are comparatively more abstractly generalized in meaning. In scientific speech they make up about 80% 1 .
Perfective verbs are often used in the form of the future tense, synonymous with the present timeless, the aspectual meaning of such verbs turns out to be weakened, as a result of which the perfective form in most cases can be replaced by an imperfect one: draw (line) - draw, compare (results) - compare, consider (inequality ) - we are considering.
In the scientific style, the 3rd person singular and plural forms of verbs are common as they are the most abstractly generalized in meaning. The 1st person plural forms of verbs and the pronoun we used with them are characterized by additional semantic shades. They usually do not serve to designate any specific, specific persons, but to express an abstract, generalized meaning. This includes “we are together” (you and I), expressing a connotation of participation with the listener or reader, as well as the use of we to designate every person, a person in general: we can determine the area...; we will come to a conclusion...; if we designate... This value often expressed by the personal form of the verb in the absence of a pronoun (we can define...; if we designate...). It is possible to replace the personal construction with an impersonal or infinitive one: you can define..., you can come to a conclusion..., if you designate...
The 1st person singular forms of verbs and the pronoun I are almost never used in scientific speech, since here attention is focused primarily on the content and logical sequence of its presentation, and not on the subject. The 2nd person singular and plural forms are practically not used as they are the most specific, usually indicating the author of the speech and the addressee. In scientific speech, the addresser and addressee are removed; What is important here is not who is speaking, but what is being said, i.e. the topic of the message, the content of the statement. Scientific speech is usually addressed not to any specific person, but to an indefinitely wide circle of people.
The desire for abstraction and generalization determines the tendency of the verb to desemantize. It manifests itself in the fact that, firstly, the scientific style is characterized by verbs of broad, abstract semantics: have, change, be observed, manifest, end, discover, exist, occur, manifest and etc.; secondly, many verbs in the scientific style act as connectives: to be, to become, to appear, to serve, to possess, to be called, to be considered, to be concluded, to differ, to be recognized, to be introduced, etc.; thirdly, a number of verbs perform the function of components of verbal-nominal phrases (verbonominants), in which the main semantic load is carried by nouns, and verbs denote action in the broadest sense and express grammatical meaning: find application, make calculations (observations, measurements, calculations ), exert influence (impact, pressure, help, support, resistance), react (interact), lead to change (improvement, strengthening, weakening, expansion), etc. Verb-nominal phrases of this type allow generalization represent an action and at the same time contribute to semantic accuracy, since the use of a phrase instead of a full-nominal verb (to find application - to apply, to resist - to resist) allows you to extend the nominal component of the phrase with an adjective that specifies the description of the action or process: to find wide (universal, etc.) application , provide strong (noticeable, constant, friendly, etc.) resistance.
In the scientific style, conjunctions, prepositions and prepositional combinations are active, in the role of which full-valued words, primarily nouns, can act: with the help, with the help, in accordance with, as a result, for the reason, on the basis of, in relation to, depending on ..., compared with..., in connection with..., in moderation, etc. Such prepositions and conjunctions allow one to express the meaning more definitely and accurately than simple ones, since the range of their meaning is narrower.
Emotional and subjective-modal particles and interjections are not used in scientific speech.
The abstractness and generality of scientific speech at the syntactic level is expressed primarily in the widespread use of passive (passive) constructions, since in them the action is brought to the fore, and not its producer, as a result of which objectivity and an impersonal manner of presentation are ensured. For example: The points are connected by a straight line; Forces are applied to two points acting in different directions; “Russian Grammar” reflects and describes many phenomena of colloquial and specialized speech.
The desire for information saturation determines the selection of the most capacious and compact syntactic constructions. In the scientific style, simple common and complex conjunctive sentences predominate. Among the former, the most common are indefinite personal ones with a direct object at the beginning of a sentence, synonymous with passive constructions (Applying fertilizers during plant growth is called fertilizing. Plants are fed with those mineral fertilizers that they require at a given period of life). Generalized personal sentences with the main member expressed by a verb in the form of the 1st person plural of the present or future tense in a timeless meaning are widespread (Let's draw a straight line; Place the composition in a flask; Let's turn to consideration...; Gradually heat the solution), as well as impersonal sentences of different types (with the exception of those that express the state of man and nature): It is necessary to prove a theorem; It is required to determine the volume of the body; The formula can be applied; It is important to emphasize that...
Usage nominative sentences in scientific texts is quite limited. They are usually used in headings and wording of plan points: Launch spaceship; Determining the effectiveness of indexing systems; The relationship and relationship between underground and aboveground parts plants.
Of the two-part ones, the most frequent are sentences with a compound nominal predicate, which is closely related to the morphological features of the scientific style noted above and is determined by the task of scientific statements (to determine the signs, qualities, properties of the phenomena being studied). Moreover, in such a predicate in the present tense the use of the copula is characteristic: Language is the most important means of human communication.
Such a specific feature of scientific speech as emphasized logic determines the frequency of use of certain types of complex sentences. Among complex sentences in scientific speech, conjunctive complex and complex sentences with a clearly defined syntactic connection between the individual parts predominate.
The predominance of allied sentences over non-union sentences is explained by the fact that the connection between the parts of a complex sentence with the help of unions is expressed more accurately and unambiguously. Compare:
The considered phrases, although they are based on an image, cannot be considered lexically indivisible, because the imagery of one of the components of the phrase in in this case still very noticeable.
The considered phrases... cannot be considered lexically indivisible: the imagery of one of the components of the phrase in this case is still very noticeable.
Of the conjunctional sentences, the most commonly used are complex ones, since with subordination the relationships between individual clauses are expressed more differentiated and clearly. Compare:
If the origin of coordinates is chosen appropriately, the equation of the parabola will be simplified.
Let us choose the origin of coordinates accordingly, and the equation of the parabola will be simplified.
Among complex subordinates, the most common are sentences with attributive and explanatory subordinate clauses, in which the main information is contained in the subordinate part, but the main information does not perform a significant information function, but serves only to move from one thought to another: It should be said that...; It must be emphasized that...; It is interesting to note that...; Let us pay attention to the fact that...; Observations show that...; Let us note (emphasize, prove) that...
The most common and typical type of connection between sentences for scientific speech is the repetition of nouns, often in combination with demonstrative pronouns this, that, that: In modern grammatical science, a variety of ways to describe the grammatical structure of a language are used. These descriptions implement different, very dissimilar concepts...
The need for a clear logical structure of scientific speech determines the widespread use of adverbs, adverbial expressions, as well as other parts of speech and combinations of words in the connecting function: therefore, therefore, first, then, in conclusion, so, so, thus, finally, in addition and etc. They, as a rule, stand at the beginning of a sentence and serve to combine parts of the text (in particular paragraphs), logically closely related to each other: The grammatical norms of colloquial speech are fixed unsystematically and randomly - mainly in connection with the fixation of written norms and by contrast them. That's why Speaking often defined as uncodified; Suppose that these lines intersect or are parallel. Then both of them lie in a certain plane.
In scientific texts that represent reasoning or presentation of findings, generalizations, conclusions, introductory words or phrases that express the relationship between the parts of the statement are common: DS⊥MK. Consequently, the straight line MK is the axis of symmetry of the tetrahedron. Thus, this tetrahedron has three axes of symmetry of opposite edges.
Sentences are often complicated by participial and participial phrases, inserted constructions, clarifying members, isolated phrases: In the language of fiction and related genres of writing (essays, feuilletons, memoirs, literary processed diary entries, etc.), written and spoken language, special speech, vernacular.
The desire for semantic accuracy and informative richness determines the use in scientific speech of constructions with several inserts and explanations that clarify the content of the statement, limit its volume, indicate the source of information, etc.: In terms of the composition of the instruments, quintets are homogeneous, for example, bowed strings (two violins , two violas, cello, less often - two violins, viola and two cellos) and mixed (for example, strings with clarinet or piano).
Thus, at the syntactic level, first of all, one of the main specific features of the scientific style is expressed - emphasized logic, which is also manifested in the features of the composition. For a scientific text, a three-part structure (introduction, main part, conclusion) is almost universal as the most successful way of logical organization of the conveyed content.
Note:
1. Kozhina M. N. Stylistics of the Russian language. P. 169.
T.P. Pleschenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Taps. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.
The main features of the scientific style of speech
The most common a specific feature of this style of speech is the logic of presentation .
Any coherent statement must have this quality. But the scientific text is distinguished by its emphasized, strict logic. All parts in it are strictly connected in meaning and are arranged strictly sequentially; conclusions follow from the facts presented in the text. This is done by means typical of scientific speech: connecting sentences using repeated nouns, often in combination with a demonstrative pronoun.
Adverbs also indicate the sequence of thought development: first, first of all, then, then, next; as well as introductory words: firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, so, therefore, vice versa; unions: since, because, so that, therefore. Predominance union communications emphasizes the greater connection between sentences.
Another typical feature of a scientific style of speech is accuracy. .
Semantic accuracy (unambiguity) is achieved by careful selection of words, the use of words in their direct meaning, and the wide use of terms and special vocabulary. In scientific style, repetition of keywords is considered the norm.
Distraction And generality necessarily permeate every scientific text.
Therefore, abstract concepts that are difficult to imagine, see, and feel are widely used here. In such texts there are often words with an abstract meaning, for example: emptiness, speed, time, force, quantity, quality, law, number, limit; formulas, symbols, symbols, graphs, tables, diagrams, diagrams, drawings.
It is characteristic that even specific vocabulary here acts to denote general concepts .
For example: The philologist must carefully, that is, a philologist in general; Birch tolerates frost well, i.e. not a single object, but a tree species - general concept. This is clearly manifested when comparing the features of the use of the same word in scientific and artistic speech. In artistic speech, a word is not a term; it contains not only a concept, but also a verbal artistic image (comparison, personification, etc.).
The word of science is unambiguous and terminological.
Compare:
Birch 1) deciduous tree with white (less often dark) bark and heart-shaped leaves. ( Dictionary Russian language.) A genus of trees and shrubs of the birch family. About 120 species, in the temperate and cold zones of the North. hemisphere and in the mountains of the subtropics. Forest-forming and decorative species. The most important farms are B. warty and B. downy. |
White birch Below my window (S. Yesenin.) |
The scientific style of speech is characterized by the plural form of abstract and real nouns: length, magnitude, frequency; frequent use of neuter words: education, property, meaning.
Not only nouns, but also verbs are usually used in the context of scientific speech not in their basic and specific meanings, but in a generalized abstract meaning.
Words: go, follow, lead, compose, indicateь and others do not denote movement itself, etc., but something else, abstract:
In scientific literature, especially mathematical literature, the form of the future tense is often devoid of its grammatical meaning: instead of a word will are used is, is.
Present tense verbs also do not always receive the meaning of concreteness: regularly used; always indicate. Imperfective forms are widely used.
Scientific speech is characterized by: the predominance of 1st and 3rd person pronouns, while the meaning of the person is weakened; frequent use short adjectives.
However, the generality and abstractness of texts in the scientific style of speech do not mean that they lack emotionality and expressiveness. In this case, they would not have achieved their goal.
The expressiveness of scientific speech differs from the expressiveness of artistic speech in that it is associated primarily with the accuracy of the use of words, the logic of presentation, and its persuasiveness. Most often, figurative means are used in popular science literature.
Do not mix terms that are established in science and formed according to the type of metaphor (in biology - tongue, pestle, umbrella; in technology - clutch, paw, shoulder, trunk; in geography - base (mountains), ridge) using terms for figurative and expressive purposes in a journalistic or artistic style of speech, when these words cease to be terms ( pulse of life, political barometer, negotiations are stalled etc.).
To enhance expressiveness in a scientific style of speech , especially in popular science literature, in works of a polemical nature, in discussion articles, are used :
1) intensifying particles, pronouns, adverbs: only, absolutely, only;
2) adjectives like: colossal, most advantageous, one of the greatest, most difficult;
3) “problematic” questions: In fact, what kind of bodies does the cell find in the environment?, what is the reason for this?
Objectivity- another sign of a scientific style of speech. Scientific theories and laws, scientific facts, phenomena, experiments and their results - all this is presented in texts related to the scientific style of speech.
And all this requires quantitative and qualitative characteristics, objective and reliable. Therefore, exclamatory sentences are used very rarely. In a scientific text, a personal, subjective opinion is unacceptable; it is not customary to use the pronoun I and verbs in the first person singular. Here, indefinite personal sentences are used more often ( think that...), impersonal ( it is known that...), definitely personal ( let's look at the problem....).
In the scientific style of speech, several substyles or varieties can be distinguished:
a) actually scientific (academic) - the most strict, precise; they write dissertations, monographs, articles scientific journals, instructions, GOSTs, encyclopedias;
b) popular science (scientific journalistic) he writes scientific articles in newspapers, popular science magazines, popular science books; This includes public appearances on radio, television, scientific topics, speeches by scientists and specialists before mass audiences;
c) scientific and educational (educational literature on various subjects for different types of educational institutions; reference books, manuals).
| Addressee purpose | Academic |
|
|
| Selection of facts, terms | Academic | Scientific and educational All terms explained | Popular science Minimum terminology. |
| Leading type of speech Title | Academic Reasoning | Scientific and educational Reflects the type educational material | Popular science Narration Intriguing and arousing interest |
Lexical features of scientific style of speech
The main purpose of a scientific text and its vocabulary is to designate phenomena, objects, name them and explain them, and for this we need, first of all, nouns.
Most common features scientific style vocabulary are:
a) the use of words in their literal meaning;
b) lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, poetic symbols, hyperboles;
c) widespread use of abstract vocabulary and terms.
In scientific speech there are three layers of words:
The words are stylistically neutral, i.e. commonly used in different styles.
For example: he, five, ten; in, on, for; black, white, large; goes, happens etc.;
General scientific words, i.e. occurring in the language of different sciences, and not of any one science.
For example: center, force, degree, magnitude, speed, detail, energy, analogy etc.
This can be confirmed by examples of phrases taken from texts of various sciences: administrative center, center of the European part of Russia, city center; center of gravity, center of movement; center of the circle.
Terms of any science, i.e. highly specialized vocabulary. You already know that the main thing in the term is accuracy and its unambiguity.
Morphological features of the scientific style of speech
Verbs in the 1st and 2nd person singular are practically not used in scientific texts. They are often used in literary texts.
Verbs in the present tense with a “timeless” meaning are very close to verbal nouns: splashes down - splashdown, rewinds - rewinding; and vice versa: fill - fills.
Verbal nouns convey objective processes and phenomena well, which is why they are often used in scientific texts.
There are few adjectives in a scientific text, and many of them are used as part of terms and have a precise, highly specialized meaning. In a literary text, there are more adjectives in percentage terms, and epithets and artistic definitions predominate here.
In scientific style, parts of speech and their grammatical forms are used differently than in other styles.
To identify these features, let's do a little research.
Syntactic features of the scientific style of speech
Typical scientific speeches are:
a) special revolutions like: according to Mendeleev, from experience;
c) use of words: given, known, appropriate as a means of communication;
d) use of a chain of genitive cases: Establishing the dependence of the wavelength of X-rays of an atom.(Kapitsa.)
In scientific speech, more than in other styles, complex sentences are used, especially complex sentences.
Compounds with explanatory clauses express a generalization, reveal a typical phenomenon, one or another pattern.
Words as is known, scientists believe, it is clear etc. indicate when referring to a source, to any facts or provisions.
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses of reason are widely used in scientific speech, since science reveals the causal relationships of real phenomena. In these sentences they are used as common conjunctions ( because, since, because, since), and book ( due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that, for).
In scientific speech, comparisons help to deeper reveal the essence of a phenomenon, to discover its connections with other phenomena, while in work of art their main purpose is to vividly and emotionally reveal the images, the picture, the words depicted by the artist.
Frequent use of participial and participial phrases.
Using expressive means
The generality and abstractness of scientific speech does not exclude expressiveness. Scientists use figurative language to highlight the most important semantic points and to convince the audience.
Comparison - one of the forms of logical thinking.
Ugly (devoid of imagery), for example: Borofluorides are similar to chlorides.
Expanded comparison
...In the history of new Russia we are greeted with an “excess” of factual material. It becomes impossible to include it entirely in the research system, since then we will get what is called “noise” in cybernetics. Let's imagine the following: several people are sitting in a room, and suddenly everyone starts talking about their own things at the same time. family matters. In the end, we won't know anything. The abundance of facts requires selectivity. And just as acousticians choose the sound that interests them, we must select those facts that are needed to illuminate the chosen topic - the ethnic history of our country. (L.N. Gumilev. From Rus' to Russia).
Figurative comparison
Human society is like a turbulent sea, in which individual people, like waves, surrounded by their own kind, constantly collide with each other, arise, grow and disappear, and the sea - society - is forever seething, agitated and never silent...
Problematic issues
The first question that confronts us is: What kind of science is sociology? What is the subject of its study? Finally, what are the main departments of this discipline?
(P. Sorokin. General sociology)
Limitations on the use of language in a scientific style
– Inadmissibility of extraliterary vocabulary.
– There are practically no 2nd person forms of verbs and pronouns you, you.
– Limited use incomplete sentences.
– The use of emotionally expressive vocabulary and phraseology is limited.
All of the above can be presented in a table
Features of the scientific style of speech
| In vocabulary | a) terms; b) unambiguity of the word; c) frequent repetition of keywords; d) lack of figurative means; |
| As part of the word
| a) international roots, prefixes, suffixes; b) suffixes that give an abstract meaning; |
| In morphology
| a) predominance of nouns; b) frequent use abstract verbal nouns; c) the infrequency of the pronouns I, you and verbs of the 1st and 2nd person singular; d) the infrequency of exclamatory particles and interjections; |
| In syntax | a) direct word order (preferred); b) widespread use of phrases noun + noun in genus P.; c) the predominance of vaguely personal and impersonal sentences; d) rare use of incomplete sentences; e) an abundance of complex sentences; f) frequent use of participial and participial phrases; |
| Basic type of speech
| Reasoning and description |
Example of scientific style
Spelling reform 1918 brought writing closer to living speech (i.e., it abolished a whole series of traditional, rather than phonemic, orthograms). The approach of spelling to living speech usually causes a movement in the other direction: the desire to bring pronunciation closer to spelling...
However, the influence of writing was controlled by the development of internal phonetic tendencies. Only those orthographic features had a strong influence on literary pronunciation. Who helped develop Russian phonetic system according to the law I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay or contributed to the elimination of phraseological units in this system...
At the same time, it must be emphasized that, firstly, these features were known at the end of the 19th century. and that, secondly, even now they cannot be considered completely victorious in modern Russian literary pronunciation. Old literary norms compete with them.
Russian language and culture of speech
DE 1 (Stylists)
Functional styles of the Russian literary language
Style- a type of literary language that is traditionally assigned in society to one of the spheres of life. Each variety has certain linguistic characteristics (primarily vocabulary and grammar) and is contrasted with other similar varieties of literary language, which correlate with other spheres of life and have their own linguistic characteristics.
Style connected with the state of society, it is historically changeable. In Lomonosov's time one could only talk about book speech styles; stood out three styles: high, medium And short. Today the language stands out four styles: three book (scientific, official business, journalistic) And conversational style. Selection artistic style remains the subject of scientific debate.
We can only talk about relative isolation literary language styles. Most linguistic means in each style – neutral, interstyle. Everyone's core style form linguistic means inherent to it with corresponding stylistic coloring and uniform norms of use.
Stylistic means used by speakers or writers consciously. Style speech work is associated with its content, purpose, relationships between speaking(writing) and listening(reading).
Style– a type of literary language that has historically developed at a certain time in a particular society, which is a relatively closed system of linguistic means, constantly and consciously used in various spheres of life. Each functional style can exist as in written and oral form.
Every style characterized the following signs: A) conditions communication; b) target communication; V) forms (genres), in which it exists; G) set of language tools and the nature of their use.
In speech practice there may be interaction of styles, the penetration of linguistic means assigned to one or another sphere of social activity into spheres of communication unusual for them. This is justified if motivated by a specific communicative goal. Otherwise, use different styles linguistic means within one text leads to the emergence stylistic errors.
Scientific style
Scientific style speech is one of the functional varieties of literary language, serving the sphere of science and production; it is implemented in specialized book texts of various genres, mainly in written speech, Although modern world the role is increasing and oral form of scientific speech (congresses, conferences, symposiums).
Science is designed to provide true information about the world around us. Scientific texts are associated with a focus on the professional reader. Main features of the language of science – accuracy, abstractness, logic And objectivity of presentation.
An important feature of science is accuracy. Requirement accuracy predetermines such a feature of the scientific style dictionary as terminology. main feature and value term in that it carries logical information large volume, is precise and unambiguous. Scientific style imposes a ban on non-literary language ( jargon, dialectisms, colloquial words), does not allow use literary words that have emotional coloring.
The desire for generalization and abstraction is manifested in scientific style in predominance abstract vocabulary above specific. Abstract nouns like: , perspectives, truth, thinking and etc. Objectivity appears in the text scientific work both in the presence of some obligatory components of content and in form - in the manner of narration. One of the main ways to create the effect of objectivity content is reference to scientific tradition– an indication of reference to a given object of study, problem, term, etc. other scientists. " Objectivity of form"scientific style involves the rejection of linguistic means that are associated with the transfer emotions: interjections and particles that convey emotions and feelings, emotionally charged vocabulary and expressive sentence models are not used; a clear preference is given to neutral word order; For scientific speech Exclamatory intonation is not typical; interrogative intonation is used to a limited extent. Requirement objectivity also determines the rejection of narration in the first person, i.e. from the “personal” manner of narration (use of generalized personal and impersonal constructions, scientific “we”, etc.).
Striving for logic presentation of the material predetermines the active use complex sentences, especially complex(the most common are sentences with subordinate clauses of cause and condition). In these sentences they are used as common conjunctions (because, since, because, since), and book (thanks to the fact that, due to the fact that). For the purpose of emphatically logical presentation of thoughts, they are widely used introductory words (firstly, finally, according to the theory... apparently and etc.).
Linguistic features of scientific style
Lexical features:
a) the use of words in their direct meaning;
b) lack of figurative means: epithets, metaphors, artistic comparisons, poetic symbols, hyperboles;
c) widespread use abstract vocabulary And terms(general scientific and highly specialized vocabulary), frequency of derivatives with suffixes -ist (impressionist), -ness (settled life), change- (symbolism), -from-a (longitude), -no (cloning).
Morphological features:
a) have the highest frequency of use nouns, and among them the majority belongs to nouns with an abstract meaning that do not have a plural form: time, movement, direction etc., including verbal noun;
b) in a scientific text adjectives few, and many of them are used as part of terms and have a precise, highly specialized meaning; while the frequency of use short adjectives in the scientific style is several times higher than in others ( equal, proportional, similar, capable, possible, characteristic);
V) Verbs most often have a present tense form (with a “timeless” meaning); In scientific texts, verbs in the 1st and 2nd person singular are practically not used. h.
Syntactic features:
a) use complex sentences, especially complex ones;
b) widespread use introductory words;
c) use of words given, known, corresponding as means of communication;
d) permissibility of use genitive chains: establishing the dependence of the wavelength of x-rays on an atom. (Kapitsa);
e) frequency of use involved And participial phrases.
In the field of science, the main written genres are theses, article and monograph, since it is with their help that the new scientific information; other genres represent either processing this information that they provide, presenting the information in an adapted, compressed form ( abstract, abstract), or give her assessment(review, review).
Depending on how the author determines for himself the capabilities and needs of his “interlocutor,” he can use one of the variations scientific style (substyles): actually scientific, scientific and educational or popular science substyle.The main variety is actual scientific substyle(genres – monograph, scientific article, abstract, coursework and diploma work, dissertation). On its basis, a lightweight version arises, intended for those who are just comprehending a new area of knowledge - scientific-educational substyle(main genres - textbook, reference book and etc.) . A low degree of competence of the reader or listener leads to the appearance popular science text (genres – essay, article and etc.).
Some genres scientific style are a document, and therefore are influenced by the official business style. Strict requirements are imposed on final student works: the composition of the work is regulated (division into chapters or paragraphs, the presence of an outline (table of contents), sections “Introduction”, “Conclusion” (or “Conclusions”), “Bibliography”, and often “Appendix”) , its design (indication on the title page of the details “Scientific supervisor”, “Genre” ( coursework, graduate work etc.), “Year”, “ Educational institution" and etc.).
Formal business style
Modern official business(hereinafter referred to as OD) style is a functional variety of the Russian literary language used in field of administrative and legal activities. Business speech serves as a means of communication between states, the state with an individual and society as a whole; a means of communication between enterprises, institutions, organizations; a means of official communication between people in production and in the service sector.
Formal business style refers to book and written styles of literary language. It is implemented in texts laws, orders, decrees, orders, contracts, acts, certificates, certificates, powers of attorney, in business correspondence of institutions. Oral formofficial business speech presented making a presentation at meetings and conferences, judicial speech, official telephone conversation, by oral order.
TO general extralinguistic and actual linguistic features of thisstyle the following should be included:
1) accuracy, detail presentation;
2) stereotypicality, standardization presentation;
3) obligatory-prescriptive character presentation (voluntariness);
4) formality, rigor of expression of thought, objectivity And logic(traits characteristic and scientific speech).
The language of the laws requires accuracy, which does not allow any discrepancies. Standardization presentation is manifested in the fact that the heterogeneous phenomena of life in business style fit into a limited number of standard forms ( questionnaire, certificate, instructions, application, business letter etc.). Therefore, business speech impersonal, stereotypical, in it there is no emotional beginning. Specific property business speech is expression of will. Voluntariness in texts it is expressed semantically (choice of words) and grammatically. Thus, in management documentation, the first person forms of the verb are frequent ( I ask, I suggest, I order, I congratulate), modal words, forms of obligation ( must, must, should).